<p>Wauregan is a village located in the northwestern corner of the town of Plainfield, Connecticut, United States. Originally a mill village, Wauregan was established around a cotton mill powered by the Quinebaug River. Wauregan and West Wauregan, across the Quinebaug in the town of Brooklyn, together comprise the Wauregan census-designated place, with a population of 1,205 at the 2010 census.</p><br>
<p>A 90 acre portion of the original village area is listed as a historic district, the Wauregan Historic District, encompassing structures that are directly related to the economic and social activities of the mill. The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Extant buildings in the Wauregan historic district include the Wauregan Mill, an H-shaped building built from local fieldstone; James Atwoods home; the two boarding houses; the company store; and over one hundred workers houses. Architectural styles represented include Greek Revival and Late Victorian architecture.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Named for a Mohegan word meaning "Pleasant Valley" Wauregan has a long history as an industrial village. In 1850, Amos D. Lockwood, who was involved with the Quinebaug Mill in Danielsonville, bought the water privileges and surrounding land at Wauregan. After the Wauregan Mills Company charter was approved by the Connecticut legislature in 1853, the first mill was constructed circa 1853-1854. Wauregan Mills was well known for its woven cotton goods, including various types of flannel. Lockwood became the mill&#39;s first agent and recruited James S. Atwood as his superintendent, who became responsible for setting up all machinery and starting production. The principal product of Wauregan was cotton sheeting.</p><br>
<p>James S. Atwood, who purchased the mill from Lockwood in 1858, took particular interest in the village surrounding the mill, making it what he considered to be a "model hamlet" where his factorys employees "could find attractive and comfortable homes near their daily tasks." Under James S. Atwoods leadership, Wauregan began to prosper. The mill was expanded, workers houses were built, and several amenities to Wauregan village life were added. Worker housing in the village included 104 company-owned buildings containing 255 tenement apartments for rental to workers, plus two boarding houses for unmarried workers. A railroad station was built in 1859 and a post office was established in 1860. A company store was built in 1875 and operated with subsidies from the company. Another building in the mill village housed a firehouse, clubhouse, jail, and a reading room and library. A dairy farm and nearby woodlands were also part of the mill operation. Atwood quadrupled the size of the factory, adding the south mill of the front block in 1859 and the entire rear block in 1867-68. The mills labor force was around 750 people, with most living within the village. The mill would eventually reach a capacity of 56,616 spindles and 1,464 looms, with an annual output of eleven million yards.</p><br>
<p>When James S. Atwood died, management of Wauregan Mills was passed on to his twin sons, James Arthur and John Walter Atwood. The Atwood brothers continued to expand and improve the mill, which employed 325 men and 160 women and children as of 1917. The Atwood brothers successfully responded to the competition of the newer, steam-powered mills by producing finer quality cotton goods such as shirting for the USA Marine Corps, and later rayon, instead of the traditional cotton sheeting. Wauregan Mills had a close working relationship with DuPont and was one of the pioneers of synthetic fabric. This partnership led to the development of the technology to produce fabric made of a blend of wool and rayon. In contrast to many larger, corporate-owned mills that were wedded to a particular product, the economic organization of Wauregan Mills enabled its owner/managers to easily diversify and change its product mix to meet new demands resulting from competition from newer textile centers, allowing them to stay profitable through World War II, much longer than many other larger mills.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, Wauregan Mills entered a period of decline from which it never recovered. In the 1950s, free trade policies with Japan, which had modern equipment shipped to them by the USA as part of post-war reconstruction enabling them to produce fine cotton goods much more cheaply, resulted in the death of the New England textile industry as cheap cotton goods flooded the USA market. Wauregan Mills tried to emphasize their capabilities in synthetic blend output and also to reduce labor costs by negotiating with the labor unions to eliminate certain fringe benefits. In August 1955, torrential rains from Hurricanes Connie and Diane caused many dams along the Quinebaug River to break, including the one at Wauregan. The mill was flooded to the level of the first floor ceilings. Workers tried to salvage as much cloth, raw materials and machinery as they could but ultimately the company lost more than $1,500,000. The company borrowed a large sum of money in order to be able to resume production but they didnt have enough working capital to repair and modernize their facilities. In 1957, James Arthur Atwood III, grandson of James S. Atwood, and the rest of the company directors decided to cease all operations resulting in the companys final closing.</p><br>
<p>James Arthur Atwood III was responsible for disposing of the company&#39;s assets to pay off their creditors. Land, the water company, and other properties were sold, and the mill rented to various tenants over the next decade. American Standard was one of the early buyers and built a manufacturing facility in Wauregan soon after the Wauregan company closed. All the debts of Wauregan Mill were eventually paid off in 1970. In 1974, C&M Corporation, a vertically integrated manufacturer of electrical cable, owned and occupied the former Wauregan Mills complex, where it operated as a production facility and as its corporate headquarters. In 2014, the Wauregan Mill was sold to a real estate management company.</p><br>
<p>The village is described as looking "much as it did in the 1850s." The Wauregan Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The village is centered on the former site of the mill on the east bank of the Quinebaug River, near where modern Route 205 crosses the river. The village extends eastward from the river up a gently rising slope towards Route 12 located at the crest of a ridge. The mill workers houses are located along Walnut and Chestnut streets just east of the mill site, while the supervisors houses and the company store are located further east (and further up in elevation). The mill owners&#39; houses and the church are even further up and east. The historic district covers an area of about 90 acre, roughly bounded on the east by Grove Street, Fountain Street, Route 12, Route 205, and South Chestnut Street; on the south by Third Street; on the west by South Walnut Street, a westward extension of First Street, and the Quinebaug River; and on the north by the extension of the east-west portion of North Chestnut Street. The boundaries of the historic district exclude a large tract of open land to the north that the Wauregan company once owned. The district includes 114 buildings and structures.</p><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, the Wauregan CDP has a total area of 4.3 km&sup2, of which 0.05 km&sup2, or 1.25%, are water. The CDP includes, in addition to the original village, the village of West Wauregan across the Quinebaug River in the town of Brooklyn, as well as tracts of open land to the north, newer residential development to the south, and modern commercial properties along Route 12.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of the census of 2000, there were 1,085 people, 378 households, and 288 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,211.5 inhabitants per square mile. There were 410 housing units at an average density of 457.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 94.56% White, 1.29% African American, 0.46% Native American, 0.55% Asian, 0.65% from other races, and 2.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.87% of the population.</p><br>
<p>There were 378 households, out of which 50.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 19.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.8% were non-families. 16.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.15.</p><br>
<p>In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 34.0% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 34.0% from 25 to 44, 15.6% from 45 to 64, and 7.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.4 males.</p><br>
<p>The median income for a household in the CDP was $33,846, and the median income for a family was $30,795. Males had a median income of $33,224 versus $24,821 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $15,311. About 3.6% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.</p><br>
<h2>Notable buildings</h2><br>
<p>Branford Center is a neighborhood and census-designated place  in the town of Branford, Connecticut, United States. The CDP encompasses the traditional town center area  and the area known as Branford Point . The population of the CDP  was 5,819 at the 2010 census.</p><br>
<h2>Historic district</h2><br>
<p>The Branford Center Historic District was listed on the USA National Register of Historic Places in 1987. The historic district represents the area of the traditional town center and excludes Branford Point. The designated portion is an irregularly-shaped 250 acre area that includes 557 contributing buildings out of a total of 706 buildings in the district, including garages, carriage houses, and other structures. It includes two other contributing sites: the Center Cemetery and the Saint Mary&#39;s Roman Catholic Cemetery. The district boundaries were drawn to exclude modern construction such as the Branford High School and to exclude older buildings that did not retain their "historic architectural integrity."</p><br>
<p>Architectural styles represented in the Branford Center Historic District include Greek Revival architecture, Queen Anne architecture, and Colonial Revival architecture, Italianate architecture, Federal architecture, Gothic Revival architecture, Second Empire architecture, Colonial architecture, Tudor Revival architecture, and Bungalow architecture. These are mostly vernacular buildings. Of buildings designed by professional architects, the most significant is the "classically inspired, monumental 1893 James Blackstone Memorial Library," designed by Solon Spencer Beman of Chicago. The district instead includes remnants of late 19th and early 20th century industrial, commercial, and residential history.</p><br>
<p>Industry is represented in buildings of the Malleable Iron Fittings Company and the Atlantic Wire Company. Government buildings include the Branford Town Hall, from 1857, a Greek Revival building. Religious institution buildings in the district include:</p><br>
<p>the First Baptist Church, from 1840, at 975 Main Street</p><br>
<p>St. Marys Roman Catholic Churchs rectory from c. 1925 (contributing) and church from 1974 (non-contributing)</p><br>
<p>First Congregational Church, at 1009 Main Street, a brick and stone building from 1843 in Greek Revival style, with Italianate addition from later in the century</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>As defined by the USA Census Bureau, the boundaries of the Center extend from the Branford River north along Short Beach Road (Connecticut Route 142) to USA Route 1 (West Main Street), then northeast along Route 1 (becoming North Main Street) to Cedar Street, north on Cedar Street to Interstate 95, and east (northbound) on I-95 to the Branford River, which forms the entire southeastern boundary of the CDP.</p><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP (which includes Branford Point in addition to the center) has a total area of 2.1 square miles, of which 1.9 square miles is land and 0.2 square miles, or 10.14%, is water.</p><br>
<h3>Branford Green</h3><br>
<p>The green is typical of a traditional New England town, and serves as Branfords social, commercial, and governmental nerve center. It is home to many small stores, restaurants, and coffee houses, (including perennial favorites like Ashleys Ice Cream and Common Grounds) and hosts concerts and other events. Notable annual events include the Branford Festival, and the used book sale held by the Friends of the Blackstone Memorial Library.</p><br>
<p>The Branford Green is lined with churches as well as the town hall; other government facilities (such as the Branford Police Department and United States Post Office), are located on nearby Harrison Avenue. A memorial to Branford&#39;s contributions during the American Civil War is to the right of the town hall. The historic Blackstone Library is situated in the western portion of the center. It also contains five schools: (grades K-8), John B. Sliney (grades K-4), Mary T. Murphy, Mary Tisko and Branford High School (grades 9–12).</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of the census of 2000, there were 5,735 people, 2,863 households, and 1,374 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,096.9 inhabitants per square mile. There were 2,982 housing units at an average density of 1,610.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 93.50% White, 1.24% African American, 0.24% Native American, 2.35% Asian, 0.21% Pacific Islander, 0.80% from other races, and 1.66% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.80% of the population.</p><br>
<p>There were 2,863 households, out of which 20.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.5% were married couples living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52.0% were non-families. 43.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.82.</p><br>
<p>In the CDP the population was spread out, with 17.8% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 34.9% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 19.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.9 males.</p><br>
<p>The median income for a household in the CDP was $45,102, and the median income for a family was $59,604. Males had a median income of $42,750 versus $35,866 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $29,290. About 3.6% of families and 4.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.5% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over.</p><br>
<p>North Grosvenordale is a village and census-designated place  in the town of Thompson in Windham County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 1,530 at the 2010 census. The core of the village is listed as the North Grosvenordale Mill Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places. The historic area around the cotton mill was listed in 1993 and is located on Riverside Drive , Buckley Hill Road, Floral Avenue, Market Lane, and Marshall, Central, River, and Holmes Streets.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 5.8 km (2.2 mi), all land. It is located in central Thompson, on the banks of the French River. The main road passing through the village is Connecticut Route 12, which roughly parallels the river&#39;s north–south course.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>North Grosvenordale was the site of early small textile mills, probably erected in the early years of the 19th century. The mill located here remained relatively small until after the American Civil War, when it and the associated water privileges were purchased by William Grosvenor, an investor from Providence, Rhode Island. Grosvenor also purchased a second mill further south, where he built a large new mill in 1868, calling that village Grosvenordale. When he built the large brick mill standing here in 1872, he renamed this village North Grosvenordale. This mill produced fine cotton fabrics, and was one of the longest-lived and most successful textile businesses in northeastern Connecticut.</p><br>
<p>Grosvenor also built significant tracts of worker housing on either side of the river. Most of these are multiple-family buildings with vernacular Greek Revival style. They were occupied in clusters by different groups of immigrant workers, giving rise to neighborhood names such as "Little Canada" and "Swede Village". The company also built some higher-quality single-family houses at the north end of the village, which were probably occupied by skilled specialists and supervisors. The mills operated until 1954, and have been adapted to other industrial uses. The mill and surrounding company-related resources (an area of about 70 acre with more than 100 buildings), was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of the census of 2000, there were 1,424 people, 589 households, and 385 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 244.4/km (632.2/mi). There were 654 housing units at an average density of 112.2/km (290.4/mi). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.19% White, 0.84% African American, 0.63% Native American, 0.28% Asian, 0.49% from other races, and 0.56% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.83% of the population.</p><br>
<p>There were 589 households, out of which 32.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.8% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.5% were non-families. 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.96.</p><br>
<p>In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26.3% under the age of 18, 8.1% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males.</p><br>
<p>The median income for a household in the CDP was $38,850, and the median income for a family was $38,214. Males had a median income of $33,906 versus $25,372 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $16,409. About 6.7% of families and 10.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.1% of those under age 18 and 8.0% of those age 65 or over.</p><br>
<p>The Dakota, also known as the Dakota Apartments, is a cooperative apartment building at 1 West 72nd Street on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City, United States. The Dakota was constructed between 1880 and 1884 in the German Renaissance style and was designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh for businessman Edward Cabot Clark. The building was one of the first large developments on the Upper West Side and is the oldest remaining luxury apartment building in New York City. The building is a National Historic Landmark and has been designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The building is also a contributing property to the Central Park West Historic District.</p><br>
<p>The Dakota occupies the western side of Central Park West between 72nd and 73rd streets. It is largely square in plan and built around a central H-shaped courtyard, through which all apartments are accessed. Formerly, there was a garden to the west of the Dakota, underneath which was a mechanical plant serving the Dakota and some adjacent row houses. The facade is largely composed of brick with sandstone trim and terracotta detailing. The main entrance is a double-height archway on 72nd Street, which leads to the courtyard. The building&#39;s design includes deep roofs with dormers, terracotta spandrels and panels, niches, balconies, and balustrades. Each apartment at the Dakota had a unique layout with four to twenty rooms. The building is divided into quadrants, each of which has a stair and an elevator for tenants, as well as another stair and another elevator for servants.</p><br>
<p>After Clark announced plans for an apartment complex at the site in 1879, work began in late October 1880. The building was not given its name until mid-1882, and Clark died before the Dakota was completed in October 1884. The Dakota was fully rented upon its completion. The building was managed by the Clark family for eight decades and remained largely unchanged during that time. In 1961, the Dakota&#39;s residents bought the building from the Clark family and converted it into a housing cooperative. The Dakota has historically been home to many artists, actors, and musicians, including John Lennon, who was murdered outside the building on December 8, 1980. The building remained a cooperative into the 21st century.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Dakota is at 1 West 72nd Street in the Upper West Side neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The building occupies the western sidewalk of Central Park West (formerly Eighth Avenue) between 72nd Street to the south and 73rd Street to the north. The Dakota occupies a nearly square land lot with an area of. Nearby locations include the Majestic apartment building immediately to the south, the Olcott Hotel to the west, the Langham apartment building to the north, and Central Park (including the Strawberry Fields memorial) to the east.</p><br>
<p>The Dakotas developer Edward Cabot Clark, who headed sewing machine firm Singer Manufacturing Company, selected the buildings site based on several characteristics. The building is on the crest of the West Side plateau, which overlooks much of Manhattan. Additionally, 72nd Street is wide, making it one of several major crosstown streets in the Manhattan street grid. which are no longer extant. The two developments were part of Clark&#39;s larger plan for a cohesive neighborhood; the row houses were in the middle of the block, where land values were lower, whereas the Dakota was built on the more valuable site next to Central Park. Clark developed another set of row houses at 13–65 and 103–151 West 73rd Street, some of which still exist. All of these houses were designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh.</p><br>
<p>The Dakota is one of several apartment buildings on Central Park West that are primarily identified by an official name. Even though a street address was sufficient to identify these apartment buildings, this trend followed a British practice of giving names to buildings without addresses. Christopher Gray of The New York Times described the Dakota as one of several apartment buildings that were famous enough "to maintain their names simply in common custom".</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Dakota was designed by Hardenbergh for Clark and built between 1880 and 1884. The construction process involved several contractors including stonemason John L. Banta, plumber T. Brieu, iron supplier Post & McCord, carpenter J. L. Hamilton, stonework supplier J. Gillis Se Son and Henry Wilson, and woodwork contractor Pottier & Stymus.</p><br>
<p>There is disagreement over the buildings architectural style. CNBC and writers Sarah Bradford Landau and Carl W. Condit described the building as being built in a German Renaissance Revival style, but a contemporary source described the buildings design as being patterned after "the period of Francis I". The writer Elizabeth Hawes said in 1993 that the building had been characterized as "Brewery Brick Victorian neo-Gothic Eclectic". The building&#39;s design includes deep roofs with dormers, terracotta spandrels and panels, niches, balconies, and balustrades.</p><br>
<p>The Dakota is a nine-story building; most of the building is seven stories high, although there are also two-story gables. Some contemporary sources described the building as being ten stories high, including the raised basement, while others classify the Dakota as being eight stories high. The Dakota measures tall and was the tallest building in the neighborhood when it was constructed. Due to the apartments high ceilings, the Dakotas height was equivalent to that of a standard 15-story building.</p><br>
<h3>Courtyards</h3><br>
<h4>Main courtyard</h4><br>
<p>The building is largely square in plan and built around a central H-shaped courtyard. The courtyard provides entry to all apartments and doubles as a light court for the interiors of each apartment. A writer for the American Architect and Building News described the Dakota&#39;s courtyard and similar spaces in other buildings as "a safe, pleasant and sheltered place, under the eye of the Janitor, where tenants can enter, but thieves cannot...". The writer also suggested that children could play within the courtyard, but other, unidentified observers believed such a usage attracted unsolicited attention. The main courtyard also functioned as a meeting area for residents, since the rest of the building was designed with "the utmost in personal privacy" as a consideration. Over the years, the courtyard has hosted events such as parties and Christmas carols.</p><br>
<p>A glass breezeway ran along the western portion of the courtyard. After automobiles supplanted horse-drawn carriages, the Dakota banned automobiles from the courtyard</p><br>
<p>A service driveway also runs along the western side of the main courtyard. The driveway descends to the basement, where there is a lower courtyard with the same dimensions as the ground-level courtyard.</p><br>
<h4>Other spaces</h4><br>
<p>To the west of the Dakota was another garden; The placement of the mechanical plant outside the building was a deliberate measure to reassure residents in case the machinery exploded. There were also tennis and croquet courts within the garden. Images show that the garden was surrounded by a fence, and the area above the mechanical plant was further enclosed by a hedge. The garden had become a parking lot by the 1950s,</p><br>
<p>The building is surrounded by a recessed areaway, also described as a dry moat. The areaway was intended to increase residents&#39; safety, as well as allow natural light and air to enter the basement. is built within this areaway. A cast-iron fence separates the areaway from the sidewalk. The sidewalk was originally made of bluestone slabs.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>Each elevation of the facade is divided vertically into bays. There are 11 bays on 72nd Street to the south and Central Park West to the east; 13 bays on 73rd Street to the north; and 17 bays to the west. The Dakota&#39;s raised basement is clad with sandstone. The remainder of the facade is made of buff brick, except on the west elevation, which is made of red brick; all of the brick is laid in common bond. which measure up to thick.</p><br>
<h4>Entrances</h4><br>
<p>The buildings main entrance is a double-height archway on 72nd Street to the south. The archway is flanked by pedestals with metal urns, and there is a Diocletian window in the upper portion of the archway. There is also a security guards booth to the west of the main entrance. After midnight, residents and visitors are required to ring the security guard to enter the building. Portraits of a man and woman (probably Edward C. Clarks partner Isaac Merritt Singer and Isaacs wife Isabella Boyer Singer) are placed above the doorway.</p><br>
<p>The 72nd Street entrance is a porte-cochère large enough for horse-drawn carriages to drop off passengers. Inside the archway is a groin-vaulted vestibule that leads to the courtyard. There are metal gates on either end of the vestibule. Architectural Record likened the 72nd Street entrance to a "fortress entry".</p><br>
<p>A "handsome doorway", measuring tall, also led from 73rd Street to the courtyard. The northern entrance on 73rd Street was seldom used except for funerals.</p><br>
<h4>Upper stories</h4><br>
<p>The 72nd Street elevation contains projecting turrets, which rise the entire height of the facade. A depiction of a Native American&#39;s head is carved on the facade. Above the second story is a horizontal band course made of terracotta. The band course is decorated with a diaper pattern. Above the sixth story is a stone cornice, which separates the seventh story and the roof from the rest of the facade. The cornice is supported by large brackets and is topped by an ornate metal balustrade.</p><br>
<p>The building is topped by gables at each of its corners. Dormer windows and corbeled brick chimneys protrude from the roof at multiple locations. The dormer windows are arranged in two to four levels and alternately contain either stone or copper frames. There are also turrets, finials, and flagpoles along the roof.</p><br>
<h3>Structural features</h3><br>
<p>The Dakota was designed as a fireproof structure. According to construction plans, the foundation walls were made of bluestone blocks, extended deep, and measured thick. The perimeter walls tapered in thickness from at the first story to above the sixth story. The superstructure includes rolled steel beams on each floor, spaced every and measuring deep. Between these rolled beams were brick or terracotta arches. Partitions in the hallways are made of "fireproof blocks", while partitions in other parts of the building are made of either "fireproof blocks" or brick. The strength of the Dakota&#39;s superstructure rivaled that of contemporary office buildings.</p><br>
<p>The mechanical plant to the west measured and contained electrical generators, steam boilers, and steam engines. The plant&#39;s roof was constructed of brick arches and iron beams, and the garden was planted above it.</p><br>
<p>The basement had a coal bunker with a capacity of. From the beginning, the building was equipped with "a complete system of electric communication", including electric bells that were used to request the elevators. The Dakota had telegraph wires leading to a florists shop, a fire station, a nearby stable, and the messengers and telegraph offices. There were 300 electric bells and 4,000 electric lights, all powered by the mechanical plant. The attic had six water tanks, each with a capacity of. The pumps could draw up to of water per day, and over of pipes delivered water to each apartment.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<h4>Hallways, elevators, and stairs</h4><br>
<p>The passageways from the courtyard lead to ground-level spaces with wooden paneling and marble wainscoting. Between the first and second stories, the walls of the staircases are wainscoted with marble. The hallways on the upper stories are wainscoted in wood, while the ceilings and walls are made of plaster. Consequently, the hallways were generally long and narrow at the Dakota, compared with later developments such as 998 Fifth Avenue. This gave residents a feeling of privacy, since tenants were largely separated both from each other and from servants.</p><br>
<p>The interior has eight elevators, four each for residents and servants. At each corner of the courtyard, four wrought-bronze staircases and four residents elevators lead from the entrances to the upper stories. Each corner of the building has a brick shaft with one elevator and one staircase; this roughly divides the Dakota into quadrants. The tenants staircases contained marble treads. The elevator cabs were manufactured by Otis Elevators and were finished in mahogany. In the original plans, each elevator served two apartments per floor. Each elevator served a small foyer on each floor that provided access to the two apartments. These foyers were intended to be "almost as private and convenient" as entrances to typical brownstone row houses. In some cases, an elevator served only one apartment on a floor, so the elevator doors opened directly into that tenant&#39;s foyer.</p><br>
<p>In place of dumbwaiters, The service elevators and staircases are placed near the center of each side of the courtyard.</p><br>
<h4>Apartments</h4><br>
<h4>=Layouts=</h4><br>
<p>Each of the Dakotas apartments had a unique layout and contained four to twenty rooms. or eight apartments of about equal size on each of the seven lowest floors. The largest apartments were on the lower floors, as elevators were still a relatively new technology, and Hardenbergh thought a lower-floor apartment would be more attractive to people who had moved from townhouses. Look magazine characterized the differing apartment layouts as a legacy of the "rugged individualism" that had been common when the Dakota opened. The Dakotas construction drawings are no longer extant, so the original arrangement of the apartments is known only from written descriptions. Many floor plans for individual apartments have been published over the years, and the Dakotas modern floor plans have been reconstructed based on these documents. Many of the original apartments have been subdivided, though the Dakotas co-op board has endorsed numerous renovations that restored an apartment&#39;s original floor plans.</p><br>
<p>There were either nearly 500 rooms Larger apartments had up to nine bedrooms, as well as additional spaces like a billiards room, boudoir, or library.</p><br>
<h4>==Materials and dimensions==</h4><br>
<p>Ceiling heights ranged from at the first story to at the eighth story. The largest drawing room in the building was long and contained a classical fluted column instead of a partition. Parlors were generally either or. Typical antechambers in the Dakota measured; drawing rooms, bedrooms, and dining rooms.</p><br>
<p>Each apartment contained fixtures and materials that were similar to those in contemporary brownstone row houses. The kitchens and bathrooms contained modern fixtures, though other decorations such as moldings, woodwork, and floor surfaces were similar to those in many row houses.</p><br>
<p>Residents customized their apartments to fit their needs and, in some cases, their occupations. while interior designer Ward Bennett repurposed a servant&#39;s living area under the roof as a studio. Dancer Rudolf Nureyev placed classical paintings in his living room and theatrical artwork in other rooms. Some units have been substantially redesigned; for example, a four-bedroom unit was renovated in the modern style in the 2010s.</p><br>
<h4>Other features</h4><br>
<p>The Dakota&#39;s basement contained a laundry, storerooms, a kitchen, and the mechanical plant. The main section of the basement is directly under the courtyard and has an asphaltum floor. On one side of the basement were heated and illuminated storerooms in which tenants could store items for free. There was also a wine cellar, which was empty by the 1960s. The quarters of the house staff were in the basement and included bedrooms; bathrooms and dining rooms for men and women; and a smoking room and reading room for men. Residents could also order food from the basement kitchen to be delivered to their rooms. After World War II, the kitchen was closed and became a studio apartment for Giora Novak.</p><br>
<p>The building had several common areas for residents, including a dining room and a ballroom. The first floor contained the buildings main dining room, as well as a smaller private dining room and a reception room. The floors were made of inlaid tiles of marble, while the walls had English oak wainscoting, above which were bronze bas-reliefs. The ceiling was also made of carved English oak. On one side of the dining room was a fireplace with a Scotch brownstone mantel, giving the room the quality of an "old English baronial hall". The original plans had called for the dining area to be accessible to the general public, but the plans were modified before the building opened, and the dining room only served residents. The Dakota also had a ladies reception room with an artwork. There was a florist, a messengers&#39; office, and a telegraph office for residents.</p><br>
<p>The Dakotas in-house staff included a house manager, doormen, chambermaids, janitors, hall servants, and repairmen. In addition to the Dakotas in-house staff, each tenant could employ up to five of their own servants on site, though residents typically had up to three servants. Other staff, such as laundry workers, manicurists, and hairdressers, did not live in the building. Servants employed by the residents, as well as visiting servants, occupied the eighth and ninth floors. The upper-story servants quarters contained dormitories, bathrooms, laundry rooms, and dryer rooms. The servants quarters had been converted into apartments by the 1950s. Beside servants&#39; quarters, there was a playroom and a gymnasium on the roof, which was labeled as the "tenth story".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The construction of Central Park in the 1860s spurred construction in the Upper East Side of Manhattan, but similar development in the Upper West Side was slower to come. This was in part because of the West Sides steep topography and its dearth of attractions compared with the East Side. Major developments on the West Side were erected after the Ninth Avenue elevated line opened in 1879, providing direct access to Lower Manhattan. A group of businessmen formed the West Side Association the same year. Edward C. Clark believed that the lines presence would encourage the growth of a middle-class neighborhood on the West Side.</p><br>
<p>The modern-day Dakota Apartments was one of the first large developments on the Upper West Side, built at a time when large apartment blocks were still associated with tenement living. The Dakota is also New York City&#39;s oldest surviving luxury apartment building, although it was not the first such structure to be built in the city. Only a few large apartment houses in the city predated the Dakota, including the Manhattan Apartments (built in 1880) and Windermere Apartments (built in 1883). During the early 19th century, apartment developments in the city were generally associated with the working class, but by the late 19th century, apartments were also becoming desirable among the middle and upper classes. Between 1880 and 1885, more than ninety apartment buildings were developed in the city.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>In 1879, Clark announced plans for an apartment complex at the intersection of 72nd Street and Eighth Avenue Hardenbergh simultaneously designed several dozen low-rise row houses for Clark on 73rd Street. The row houses and the large apartment building were part of a larger plan that Clark had for the Upper West Side.</p><br>
<p>Construction commenced at the end of October 1880. The building initially did not have a name, even after the foundations were completed in early 1881. By that October, the building had been constructed to the second story, although the Real Estate Record wrote that "it is hardly to be expected that it will be under roof before the winter sets in". As part of the project, Clark also excavated an Artesian well measuring about deep and wide. Work was slightly delayed by a labor strike in March 1882. The exterior walls were up to the sixth story by that May, and the builders estimated that the edifice would be completed in 18 months.</p><br>
<p>The building was renamed the "Dakota" by June 1882. At the time, the development was still within a rural part of Manhattan. One story claims that the name arose because it was remote like the Dakota Territory was. Though the Clark family never denied this story, The more likely origin for the "Dakota" name was Clarks fondness for the names of the then-new western states and territories. Back in 1879, Clark had proposed naming the Upper West Sides north-south avenues after states or territories in the Western United States, though his suggestions had been ignored. The Dakotas remoteness did directly give rise to the nickname "Clarks Folly".</p><br>
<p>Clark died in 1882 and bequeathed the apartment complex to his oldest grandson, Edward Severin Clark, who at the time was 12 years old. their final collaboration, the Ontiora at Seventh Avenue and 55th Street, was similar in design to the Dakota. Work on the Dakota was delayed in August 1883 when the plasterers went on strike to protest the employment of non-union laborers at the site. Other tradesmen joined the strike but returned to work within a month. The mechanical equipment was being installed in the building by March 1884.</p><br>
<h3>Clark family ownership</h3><br>
<h4>1880s and 1890s</h4><br>
<p>The Dakota was completed by the week of October 24–27, 1884. All of the Dakota&#39;s residents were wealthy, although not particularly famous.</p><br>
<p>A law, restricting the height of large apartment houses in New York City to 80 ft, passed the year that the building was completed. Even in 1890, the row houses on the same block were bringing more income than was the Dakota. By the early 1890s, there was a waiting list for vacant apartments.</p><br>
<p>According to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), the Dakota, along with the American Museum of Natural History several blocks north, helped establish the "early character" of Central Park West. several of which were named after regions in the western United States. Other buildings, including a church, fire station, and rowhouses, also were developed nearby. Nonetheless, the Dakota remained the only large apartment building in the neighborhood until the end of the 19th century. A major reason was the lack of electricity in the area, since large apartment buildings needed electricity for their elevators, but the city did not install electric ducts along Central Park West until 1896. The Dakota had its own power plant, so the lack of municipal electric service did not affect the building.</p><br>
<h4>1900s to 1950s</h4><br>
<p>The Clarks tried to sell off an adjacent plot to the north, between 73rd and 74th streets, in 1902 with the proviso that no building on that site be taller than the Dakota. The Clarks were unable to sell the plot with that restriction, and the Langham apartment building was erected on the site. Images show that, in the first decades of the 20th century, some dormer windows were added on the roof of the building. Through the early 20th century, the Clark family retained ownership of the Dakota. A New York Herald Tribune article in 1929 noted that the Clarks have "for years resisted all attempts at purchase". The New York Times wrote in the 1920s that the Dakota "has always maintained its old-time popularity". Whereas the Dakota underwent few alterations in its first fifty years, the neighborhood changed dramatically during that period. The Dakota&#39;s main entrance on 72nd Street originally faced some shacks and gardens, but the high-rise Majestic Apartments overlooked the main entrance by the early 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Edward S. Clark died in 1933, just before the Dakotas 50th anniversary, and his brother Stephen Carlton Clark took over the buildings operation.</p><br>
<p>By the 1950s, the servants&#39; quarters on the upper stories had been converted to apartments. At the time, many tenants were diplomats, theatrical figures, or publishers. Residents tended to live in the building for several decades, leading The New York Times to observe: "It is reported that no Dakotan leaves the building permanently unless it is feet first".</p><br>
<h3>Cooperative conversion</h3><br>
<h4>1960s to 1980s</h4><br>
<p>In January 1961, the Glickman Corporation paid $4.6 million (equivalent to $ million in ) for the Dakota and an adjoining lot that contained the buildings boiler room. Glickman planned to build New York Citys largest apartment building on the combined site. The residents announced plans to buy the building from the Glickman Corporation in April 1961 for $4.8 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Glickman dropped its plans to redevelop the Dakota and instead sold the adjacent site in August. That November, the Dakotas tenants bought the building, which became a cooperative. The Mayfair was completed on the adjacent site in 1964; according to The New York Times, no plans were ever filed for a larger building on the Dakotas site. Under the co-op arrangement, the residents were obligated to share all maintenance and repair costs, which the Clark family had previously handled. The Dakota was one of twelve apartment buildings on Central Park West to be converted into housing cooperatives in the late 1950s and early 1960s. By the mid-1960s, members of the co-op had to pay fees of up to $14,400 a year (equivalent to $ in ), in addition to a one-time down payment of no more than $60,000 on their apartments (equivalent to $ in ). At the time, the building employed about 30 staff.</p><br>
<p>The Dakotas board of directors announced in 1974 that the roof would need to be replaced, since the slate tiles had started to fall off and the copper trim had deteriorated. Since the building had been designated a New York City landmark five years prior, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had to review every proposed modification to the exterior. The LPC hired experts who determined that a full restoration would cost $1 million (equivalent to $ million in ), which amounted to an additional $10,000 assessment for each of the Dakotas 95 tenants. The board of directors decided to instead conduct a smaller-scale renovation. The Joseph K. Blum Company added waterproofing to the Dakotas roof for $160,000 (equivalent to $ million in ). The Dakotas board also voted in 1975 to ban the installation of air conditioners that protruded through the building&#39;s facade, since the LPC would have to approve every air conditioner that was installed.</p><br>
<p>The Dakota gained attention when John Lennon, a resident and former member of the rock band the Beatles, was shot dead outside the building on December 8, 1980. According to the Chicago Tribune, the Dakota became a makeshift memorial for Lennon, especially among fans of the Beatles. The murder also prompted concern among residents, who demanded more stringent security; all visitors were already required to pass through the security booth on 72nd Street. Years after Lennons death, the Dakotas residents tended to eschew publicity. The Dakota&#39;s board had rejected numerous high-profile personalities who had wanted to move into the building. By then, there were 93 apartments, and the original floor plans had been rearranged extensively. Residents generally continued to live in the building for prolonged periods.</p><br>
<h4>1990s to present</h4><br>
<p>By 1992, the Dakotas facade was being cleaned. New mortar had been applied to the brickwork in the facade, but the light color of the mortar contrasted sharply with the darkened bricks. The Dakotas board decided to repair the most deteriorated bricks rather than replace the whole facade. The project was budgeted using unit pricing, since it was impossible to know how many bricks needed to be repaired until the entire facade had been examined. The repairs ultimately cost $5 million, amounting to an average assessment of $50,000 for each tenant. The LPC gave craftsmanship awards to the restoration architects, Ehrenkrantz & Eckstut Architects and Remco, in 1994. The fireplaces were also restored in the late 1990s or early 2000s, requiring some of the fireplace flues to be replaced.</p><br>
<p>The Dakotas maintenance expenses were shared among fewer residents and tended to be much higher than at other nearby co-ops. For instance, Lennons widow Yoko Ono paid a monthly fee of $12,566 for her apartment in 1996, while a similarly-sized apartment at the nearby San Remo had a monthly maintenance cost of $6,000. At the time, the upper level of the courtyard had severe leaks, and the breezeway on the western side of the courtyard was "practically held up by paint". The LPC approved all aspects of the planned renovation. Some residents wanted the glass breezeway in the courtyard to be removed, citing aesthetic concerns; preservationists said the general public would have not been able to see the breezeway anyway, since security had been tightened after Lennon&#39;s murder. The restoration of the courtyard started in February 2004 and was completed seven and a half months later.</p><br>
<p>High demand for units at the Dakota continued into the 21st century. The Dakota had 85 co-op units by the 2010s. Some of the smaller apartments had been combined over the years, and several units were restored to their original layouts. The building&#39;s facade was again renovated starting in 2015. The project was completed two years later for $32 million.</p><br>
<h2>Residents</h2><br>
<p>According to a 1996 article in New York magazine, many brokers classified the Dakota as one of five top-tier apartment buildings on Central Park West, largely because of its residents, large scale, and "historical prestige". The others were 88 Central Park West, 101 Central Park West, the San Remo, and the Beresford. As at other luxury apartment buildings in New York City, some of the Dakota&#39;s residents use their units as pieds-a-terre rather than as their primary residences. Notable residents of the Dakota have included:</p><br>
<p>Richard Adler, lyricist</p><br>
<p>Lauren Bacall, actress</p><br>
<p>Harley Baldwin, real estate developer and art dealer</p><br>
<p>Walter Becker, songwriter, musician, co-founder of Steely Dan</p><br>
<p>Ward Bennett, architect and designer</p><br>
<p>Leonard Bernstein, composer and conductor</p><br>
<p>Connie Chung, newscaster</p><br>
<p>Rosemary Clooney, singer and actress</p><br>
<p>Harlan Coben, author</p><br>
<p>Bob Crewe, songwriter, record producer, and artist</p><br>
<p>José Ferrer, actor</p><br>
<p>Roberta Flack, singer</p><br>
<p>Buddy Fletcher, businessman</p><br>
<p>Charles Henri Ford, poet, artist, and publisher</p><br>
<p>Ruth Ford, actress</p><br>
<p>Ketti Frings, playwright</p><br>
<p>Judy Garland, actress</p><br>
<p>Lillian Gish, actress</p><br>
<p>Paul Goldberger, architecture critic</p><br>
<p>Ydessa Hendeles, art collector</p><br>
<p>Judy Holliday, actress</p><br>
<p>William Inge, playwright</p><br>
<p>Charles Douglas Jackson, Time Inc. executive</p><br>
<p>Charles Henry Jones, American journalist, editor, and political figure</p><br>
<p>Michael Kahn, theatre director</p><br>
<p>Boris Karloff, actor</p><br>
<p>Sidney Kingsley, playwright</p><br>
<p>John Lennon, musician and composer; murdered at the Dakota in 1980</p><br>
<p>Sean Lennon, musician and composer; son of John Lennon and Yoko Ono</p><br>
<p>John Madden, football coach and commentator</p><br>
<p>Marya Mannes, author and critic</p><br>
<p>Henry Masterson III, philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Frederick S. Mates, financier</p><br>
<p>Albert Maysles, documentary filmmaker</p><br>
<p>John B. McDonald, contractor who worked on the first line of the New York City Subway</p><br>
<p>Jo Mielziner, theatrical set designer</p><br>
<p>Walter Millis, writer</p><br>
<p>Joe Namath, football player</p><br>
<p>Rudolf Nureyev, dancer</p><br>
<p>Rosie O&#39;Donnell, actress</p><br>
<p>Yoko Ono, artist, widow of John Lennon; lived there until 2023</p><br>
<p>Jack Palance, actor</p><br>
<p>Ruth Porat, CFO of Alphabet and Google</p><br>
<p>Eric Portman, actor</p><br>
<p>Maury Povich, television host</p><br>
<p>Gilda Radner, comedian</p><br>
<p>Thomas Reardon, neuroscientist and technologist</p><br>
<p>Rex Reed, critic</p><br>
<p>Jason Robards, actor</p><br>
<p>Jane Rosenthal, film producer</p><br>
<p>Wilbur Ross, financier</p><br>
<p>Robert Ryan, actor</p><br>
<p>Zachary Scott, actor</p><br>
<p>Eugenia Sheppard, writer</p><br>
<p>Paul Simon, musician</p><br>
<p>Harper Simon, musician and composer; son of Paul Simon</p><br>
<p>Ruth P. Smith, advocate</p><br>
<p>Michael Wager, actor</p><br>
<p>Teresa Wright, actress</p><br>
<p>The Dakotas co-op board, which decides whether to allow prospective tenants, has a reputation for selectivity. In 2011, The Wall Street Journal characterized the board as having "high standards and aversion to notoriety". A CNBC report in 2012 noted that one set of prospective tenants had to pay several thousand dollars for a background check, as well as submit several years worth of financial and tax documents, and that even these measures did not guarantee that the tenants would be accepted.</p><br>
<p>The Dakotas board maintains a set of house rules for residents and their guests; in 2011, The New York Times characterized several of the rules as appearing "like they could have been drafted when the building opened". For example, "domestic employees, messengers and trades people" are required to use the service elevators, and healthcare and childcare providers must be accompanied by clients when they use the passenger elevators. Other rules include a restriction against leaving more than one car unattended in the driveway; a prohibition on "dance, vocal or instrumental instruction" in apartments; and a restriction on playing musical instruments or using a phonograph, radio, or TV loudspeaker between 11 p.m. and 9 a.m. Residents cannot throw away their apartments original fireplace mantels or doors and must instead put them in a storage area in the basement.</p><br>
<p>On numerous occasions, the board has refused to allow high-profile personalities to move into the building, including musicians Gene Simmons, Billy Joel, Carly Simon, Madonna, and Cher, as well as baseball player Alex Rodriguez, and comedian Judd Apatow. In 2002, the board rejected corrugated cardboard magnate Dennis Mehiel; he was only allowed to move into the building 20 years later. Investor and resident Buddy Fletcher filed a lawsuit in 2011, claiming that the board had made racist remarks against would-be residents on numerous occasions, but a New York state judge dismissed Fletcher&#39;s suit in 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<h3>Reception</h3><br>
<p>Before The Dakota was completed, architectural critic Montgomery Schuyler was skeptical of the building&#39;s potential, saying: "At present, it is too isolated to come to anything like an immediate favor with the wealthy classes..." By the time the Dakota opened, it was widely acclaimed. The New York Daily Graphic wrote that the building was "one of the most perfect apartment houses in the world". The Real Estate Record and Guide wrote in 1884: "The owners have been fortunate in their architect, and Mr. Hardenbergh has been fortunate in his clients." Two years later, H. W. Fabian referred to the Dakota as the "most excellent of any of the kind in New York", and M. G. Van Rensselaer said the Dakota was the only apartment building she had ever seen that "merits praise". Elizabeth Hawes said in her 1993 book New York, New York that the building looked "both important and unlikely" when it had been completed.</p><br>
<p>Schuyler, reappraising the building in 1896, said: "The architectural results were so successful that it is a very considerable distinction to have designed the best apartment house in New York." Architectural Record spoke critically of the buildings high quality, saying in 1902 that the fact that the Dakota was the best-designed apartment house along Central Park West "is not especially encouraging as an architectural sign of the times". On the Dakotas 50th anniversary, the New York Herald Tribune described the building as standing "firmly on its unimpeachable foundations; somewhat shorter than its neighbors but immeasurably more impressive".</p><br>
<p>Commentary continued in later years. A New York Times article in 1959 described the Dakota&#39;s design as ranging "Victorian Kremlin" to "Middle Eastern Post Office", while Look magazine called the building a "maze of imaginative, distinctive living". Architect Robert A. M. Stern wrote in 1999: "The Dakota was an undisputed masterpiece, far and away the grandest apartment house of the Gilded Age in New York and rivaling, if not exceeding, in logic and luxury any comparable building in Paris and London". Christopher Gray said in 2006 that "The Dakota remains Mount Olympus in the mythology of New York apartment houses, its baronial majesty the gauge by which all others must be judged." The Wall Street Journal referred to the Beresford, the Dakota, and the San Remo as the "three grand dames of the West Side".</p><br>
<p>Contemporary critics also commented about specific architectural elements of the Dakota. The Real Estate Record and Guide dubbed the dining suite as "the handsomest dining room in Manhattan". Hardenbergh, who remained involved in his designs after their completion, wrote a letter objecting to American Architect characterization of the courtyard.</p><br>
<h3>Cultural impact and legacy</h3><br>
<p>Though the Dakota had an unusual design for its time, only one other luxury "communal palace" followed it: the Osborne on 57th Street. After the Dakota was completed, ornamental-iron contractor Hecla Iron Works published advertisements of the building in Architectural Record. The building and its inhabitants have been detailed in numerous periodicals, including Look and Architectural Forum. Illustrations of the building appeared on several magazine covers, including the July 12, 1982, issue of The New Yorker magazine and the 1979 Christmas catalog for Brentano&#39;s bookstore.</p><br>
<p>The Dakotas history is detailed in at least two books. Stephen Birminghams book Life at the Dakota was published in 1979, while historian Andrew Alperns book The Dakota: A History of the Worlds Best-Known Apartment Building was published in 2015. Nonetheless, relatively little scholarly material about the Dakota has been published. According to Wilbur Ross, a former president of the Dakotas board, a planned "centennial art book" about the building was canceled in 1984 because the Dakota was so poorly documented. The Dakota has also appeared in several popular media works, including Roman Polanskis 1968 film Rosemarys Baby. The Chicago Tribune wrote that the "buildings grim presence was introduced to most Americans" in that film. The building was also depicted in Jack Finney&#39;s 1970 novel Time and Again.</p><br>
<p>The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Dakota as a New York City landmark in February 1969. The Dakota was also added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1972 and was re-added to the NRHP as a National Historic Landmark in 1976. The Dakota is also part of the Central Park West Historic District, which was designated as an NRHP district in 1982, as well as the Upper West Side Historic District, which became a New York City historic district in 1990.</p><br>
<p>Perkins Township  is an unorganized territory in Sagadahoc County, Maine, United States. Originally incorporated as the town of Perkins, it was later abandoned, and has been uninhabited since the 1940s. The township comprises Swan Island, Little Swan Island and some tidal flats—all within the Kennebec River between the towns of Richmond and Dresden. The Swan Island Historic District comprises most of the township, with eight buildings, five structures and 1,500 acre. Some of the buildings date to the 1750s. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. The entire township is now protected as the Steve Powell Wildlife Management Area, and is under the jurisdiction of the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. Camping, hunting, fishing, and wildlife viewing are permitted between May and October; reservations are required.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The town of Perkins was incorporated in the mid-19th century and then disincorporated in 1918. During the 19th century, the town was a community of almost 100 residents who engaged in shipbuilding, farming and ice harvesting. The island also attracted summer residents who built summer homes, and its most famous summer resident was Thomas Handasyd Perkins. The town was named for him when it was incorporated in the mid-19th century, after he paid for its incorporation.</p><br>
<p>Besides town government, the town also had a schoolhouse and cemetery. However the town was disincorporated in 1918, so it became a township managed by the state. By the mid-1940s the Great Depression and ongoing pollution of the Kennebec River led to the decline of the island&#39;s industries and the island was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Little was done until the 1990s when efforts were made to protect some of the buildings, a process that is ongoing.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and historic features</h2><br>
<p>According to the United States Census Bureau, Swan Island has a total area of 9.7 km (3.7 mi), of which 5.8 km (2.2 mi) is land and 3.9 km (1.5 mi) (40.37%) is water. The township consists of Swan Island and Little Swan Island. Swan Island is 4 mi long and relatively narrow, with its northernmost tip roughly opposite the village center of Richmond, across the main channel of the Kennebec River, and whose southernmost tip is just north of the northern extent of Merrymeeting Bay. Little Swan Island is approximately one-third of the way south of the northern tip of Swan Island, on its eastern side.</p><br>
<p>Access to Swan Island is via a boat dock near its northern tip. The island is roughly divided by its former main road, which ran along its spine. The land is a mix of woods and former fields, a proportion that is maintained by the state as part of its wildlife management activities. Historic features of the island include several cemeteries and the c. 1763 house of Dr. Silvester Gardiner, one of the islands first colonial owners, and which is one of the states only examples of 18th-century saltbox architecture.</p><br>
<p>Fort Snelling is a former military fortification and National Historic Landmark in the USA state of Minnesota on the bluffs overlooking the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers. The military site was initially named Fort Saint Anthony, but it was renamed Fort Snelling once its construction was completed in 1825.</p><br>
<p>Before the American Civil War, the USA Army supported slavery at the fort by allowing its soldiers to bring their personal enslaved people. These included African Americans Dred Scott and Harriet Robinson Scott, who lived at the fort in the 1830s. In the 1840s, the Scotts sued for their freedom, arguing that having lived in "free territory" made them free, leading to the landmark United States Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford. Slavery ended at the fort just before Minnesota statehood in 1858.</p><br>
<p>The fort served as the primary center for USA government forces during the Dakota War of 1862. It also was the site of the concentration camp where eastern Dakota and Ho-chunk non-combatants awaited riverboat transport in their forced removal from Minnesota when hostilities ceased. The fort served as a recruiting station during the Civil War, Spanish–American War, and both World Wars before being decommissioned a second time in 1946. It then fell into a state of disrepair until the lower post was restored to its original appearance in 1965. At that time, all that remained of the original lower post were the round and hexagonal towers. Many of the important buildings of the upper post remain today with some still in disrepair.</p><br>
<p>The historic fort is in the unorganized territory of Fort Snelling within Hennepin County, bordering Ramsey and Dakota counties.</p><br>
<p>There are now multiple government agencies that own portions of the former fort with the Minnesota Historical Society administering the Historic Fort Snelling site. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources administers Fort Snelling State Park at the bottom of the bluff. Fort Snelling once encompassed the park&#39;s land. It has been cited as a "National Treasure" by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The historic fort is in the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, a National Park Service unit.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Bdóte</h3><br>
<p>Bdóte (meeting of waters or where two rivers meet) is considered a place of spiritual importance to the Dakota. A Dakota-English Dictionary (1852) edited by missionary Stephen Return Riggs originally recorded the word as mdóte, noting that it was also "a name commonly applied to the country about Fort Snelling, or mouth of the Saint Peters," now known as the Minnesota River. According to Riggs, "The Mdewakantonwan think that the mouth of the Minnesota River is precisely over the center of the Earth and that they occupy the gate that opens into the western world.".</p><br>
<p>The confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers also became a place where Native Americans would sign treaties with the United States: the 1805 Treaty of St. Peters signed by the Mdewakanton Dakota, the 1837 White Pine Treaty signed by several Ojibwe bands, and the 1851 Treaty of Mendota signed by representatives of the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute Dakota.</p><br>
<h3>Land cession treaty</h3><br>
<p>In 1805, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike signed a treaty he was unauthorized to create, known as Pike&#39;s Purchase (1805 Treaty of St. Peters). There were seven Dakota members present, with only two signing the treaty: Cetan Wakuwa Mani (Petit Corbeau) and Way Aga Enogee (Waynyaga Inaźin). It ceded 155,320 acres of land in the area (400 km). Although Pike was an army officer, he was not authorized to sign a treaty on behalf of the United States, nor were there any formal witnesses.</p><br>
<p>From a legal point of view, there was insufficient description of the land the signers intended to convey. Payment for the ceded lands only arrived in 1819, when the United States Department of War sent Major Thomas Forsyth to distribute approximately $2,000 worth of goods. In 1838, Indian agent Lawrence Taliaferro paid a further $4,000 to try to settle the matter with the other Dakota band. The issue was raised in subsequent treaty negotiations in the 1850s. The moral legitimacy of the land title is still disputed.</p><br>
<p>Pike Island, at the mouth of the Minnesota River, was later named after Zebulon Pike.</p><br>
<h3>Frontier post</h3><br>
<p>Following the War of 1812, the United States Department of War built a chain of forts and installed Indian agents from Lake Michigan to the Missouri River in South Dakota. These forts were intended to extend the United States presence into the northwest territories following the Treaty of Ghent and the demarcation of the 49th parallel. The treaty restricted British-Canadian traders from operating in the US. The forts were intended to enforce that, as well as to keep Indian lands free of white settlement until permitted by treaty. The forts were seen as the embodiment of federal authority, representing law and order, and provided protection to pioneers and traders. The Fort Snelling garrison also attempted to keep the peace among the Dakota and other tribes. Also built on army land was the St. Peters Indian Agency at Mendota. The Anglo-Europeans called the Minnesota River the St. Peters and the Indian Agency would be a part of Fort Snelling from 1820 to 1853.Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth commanded the expedition of 5th Infantry that built the initial outpost in 1819. That cantonment was called "New Hope" and was on the river flats along the Minnesota River. Col. Leavenworth lost 40 men to scurvy that winter and moved his encampment to Camp Coldwater because he felt the riverside location contributed to the outbreak. The new camp was near a spring closer to the fortification he was constructing. That spring would be the source of drinking water to the fort throughout the 19th century. The spring held a spiritual significance to the Sioux. The post surgeon began recording meteorological observations at the fort in January 1820. The USA Army Surgeon General had made the recording of four weather readings every day a duty of the surgeon at every Army post. Fort Snelling has one of the longest near-continuous weather records in the country. In 1820 Colonel Josiah Snelling took command of the outpost and the forts construction. Upon completion in 1824, he christened his work "Fort St. Anthony" for the waterfalls just upriver. That did not last long, as it was changed by General Winfield Scott to Fort Snelling in recognition of the forts architect commander.</p><br>
<p>From construction in 1820 to closure in 1858, four army units would garrison the fort, the 1st, 5th, 6th, 10th Regiments. plus a company from the 1st Dragoons. In 1827 the 5th Infantry would be replaced by the 1st Infantry for ten years with the 5th returning in 1837. The 5th would garrison the fort until the 1st relieved them again in 1840. In 1848 the 6th Infantry became the garrison. The garrison would change again in November 1855. The 10th commanded by Col. C.F. Smith assumed duty. Smith would go on to become a major general.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Snelling was recalled to Washington, leaving Fort Snelling in September 1827. He died the next summer from complications of dysentery and a "brain fever".</p><br>
<p>In 1827 the first post office in Minnesota started at Fort Snelling with most mail forwarded from Prairie du Chien.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Zachary Taylor assumed command in 1828. He observed that the "buffalo are entirely gone and bear and deer are scarcely seen." He also wrote that the "Indians subsist principally on fish, water fowl and wild rice". While Taylor was posted to Fort Snelling, eight adult enslaved people with him died, as did several minors.</p><br>
<p>Along with the construction of the fort, an Indian Agency was constructed on the military Reservation opposite the fort at Mendota. It was administered by Major Lawrence Taliaferro. In 1834 Taliaferro and the fort commandant, Major Bliss, assisted missionaries Gideon and Samuel W. Pond in developing the Dakota alphabet and compiling a Dakota dictionary. Taliaferro also served as the Territorial Justice of Peace until 1838 when the Governor of Iowa named Henry Sibley his replacement.</p><br>
<p>The Agency was used to hold court, and those incarcerated were sent to Fort Snelling&#39;s round tower. The town of St. Paul also sent its criminals to the tower until it built its first jail in 1851. There were 21 enslaved people with Taliaferro, one of whom was Harriet Robinson. She married Dred Scott with Taliaferro officiating at Mendota.</p><br>
<p>John Marsh, arrived at the fort during the early 1820s. He started the first school in the Territory for the officers children. Marsh developed a relationship with the Dakota, and compiled a dictionary of the dialect used by the Mendota tribe. He had studied medicine at Harvard without earning a degree. He continued his studies under the tutelage of the forts physician, Dr. Purcell. However, Purcell died before he completed the coursework and March moved west. Major Plympton became post commander in August 1837. He made determining the actual boundaries of the fort&#39;s land a priority, doing two surveys.</p><br>
<p>After the second he sent troops to evict "Pigs Eye" Parrant from Fountain Cave downriver. Parrants tavern there was the first commercial venture in what became St. Paul. Parrant was a notorious bootlegger doing business with both the Dakota and the soldiers, causing issues for the fort commander. The eviction coincided with the arrival of the Catholic missionary Lucian Galtier. That year also brought the arrival of Pierre Bottineau, the Kit Carson of the Northwest. He would serve the fort as a guide and interpreter. He could speak French and English, Dakota, Ojibwe, Cree, Mandan and Hochunk. Eastman was an artist. He has been recognized for his extensive work recording the Dakota. His skill was such that he was commissioned by Congress to illustrate the six-volume study of Indian Tribes of the United States by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. The set was published 1851–1857 with hundreds of his works.</p><br>
<p>From 1833 to 1836 Dr. Nathan Sturges Jarvis (surgeon) was stationed at Fort Snelling. During that time he acquired a notable collection of northern plains Native American artifacts now housed at the Brooklyn Museum.</p><br>
<p>In 1848 A Co of the 6th USA Infantry was dispatched from Fort Snelling to build Fort Ripley.</p><br>
<p>In 1848 the Fort&#39;s Military Reservation was declared too big, with the lands east of the Mississippi detached and sold. That land created much of what became St. Paul.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 1849, D Company 1st Dragoons escorted Maj. Woods of the 6th Infantry at Fort Snelling, to mark a northern boundary line and select a site for a future fortification near Pembina.</p><br>
<p>In 1850 E Co of the 6th Infantry was sent south to build Fort Dodge and would garrison the fort until the army closed it and sent E Co. to help construct Fort Ridgely.</p><br>
<p>In 1850 Alexander Ramsey requested Congress fund five military roads in the Territory. Two ran from Mendota at Fort Snelling. One followed the Mississippi to Wabasha and the Iowa border. The other headed west to the Big Sioux River confluence with the Missouri.</p><br>
<p>In 1853 C, E, and K Companies of the 6th Infantry were tasked with the construction of Fort Ridgely.</p><br>
<p>Also in 1853, congress authorized money specifically to "mount" E Company of the 3rd Artillery to be stationed at Fort Snelling and Fort Ridgely until May 1861.</p><br>
<p>1856 Major Edward Canby was fort commander. He became a general. The only one killed in the Indian wars. The town of Canby is named for him.</p><br>
<p>1857–1861 G, I, and L Companies 2nd Artillery were variously posted to northern forts Snelling, Ridgely, Ripley.</p><br>
<p>1864–65 The Minnesota Valley Railroad completed line from St. Paul to Minneapolis crossing the river at Mendota that passed beneath the Fort. Pilings remain of the line&#39;s river crossing.</p><br>
<p>As the towns of Minneapolis and St. Paul grew and with Minnesota statehood before Congress, the need for a forward frontier military post had ceased. In 1857, with the fort&#39;s deactivation looming, the garrison was sent to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, to join the other units being sent to Utah for what became known as the Utah War. With the departure of the 10th Infantry, Fort Snelling was designated surplus government property. In 1858, when Minnesota became a state, the army sold it to Franklin Steele for $90,000. Steele operated the two ferries serving the fort across both rivers at the same time he was the sutler to the fort. He also was a friend of the sitting President, James Buchanan. The balance of that original land is now broken into: Historic Fort Snelling Interpretive Center (300 acres), Fort Snelling State Park (2,931 acres), Fort Snelling National Cemetery (436 acres), Fort Snelling VA Hospital (160 acres), Minnesota Veterans Home (53 acres), the Coldwater Spring unit of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area (29 acres), the Upper Post Veterans Home, Minneapolis St Paul International Airport and the Minneapolis-St Paul Joint Air Reserve Station (2,930 acres).</p><br>
<p>Fort Snelling watercolor by Lt. Sully October 1855.</p><br>
<h3>Slavery at the fort</h3><br>
<p>When Fort Snelling was built in 1820, fur traders and officers at the post, including Colonel Snelling, employed slave labor for cooking, cleaning, and other domestic chores. Although slavery was a violation of both the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and the Missouri Compromise of 1820, an estimated 15–30 Africans were enslaved at the fort. US Army officers submitted pay vouchers to cover the expenses of retaining enslaved persons. From 1855 to 1857, nine individuals were enslaved at Fort Snelling. The last slave-holding unit was the 10th Infantry. Slavery was made unconstitutional in Minnesota when the state constitution was ratified in 1858.</p><br>
<p>Two women that had lived enslaved at Fort Snelling sued for their freedom and were set free in 1836. One, named Rachel, was enslaved Lieutenant Thomas Stockton at Fort Snelling from 1830 to 1831, then at Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien until 1834. When Rachel and her son were sold in St. Louis, she sued, claiming that she had been illegally enslaved in the Minnesota Territory. In 1836 the Missouri Supreme Court ruled in her favor making her a free person. He was involved in the Dakota War and was the first defendant on the docket of the military tribunal for hanging.</p><br>
<p>The fort surgeon, Dr. John Emerson, purchased Dred Scott at a slave market in Saint Louis, Missouri, where slavery was legal. Emerson was posted to Fort Snelling during the 1830s and brought Scott north with him. There Scott meet and married Harriet and had two children as slaves at Fort Snelling from 1836 to 1840. Dr. Emersons wife Irene, returned to St. Louis taking the Scotts and their children in 1840. In 1843 Scott sued for his familys freedom for illegally being indentured in free territory. Although he lost that first trial, he appealed and in 1850 his family was given their freedom. In 1852, Emerson appealed and the Scotts were again enslaved. Dred Scott appealed that decision and in 1857 the US Supreme Court decided that the Scotts would stay enslaved. Dred Scott v. Sandford was a landmark case that held that neither enslaved nor free Africans were meant to hold the privileges or constitutional rights of United States citizens. This case garnered national attention and pushed political tensions towards the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>A longstanding precedent in freedom suits of "once free, always free" was overturned in this case. (The cases were combined under Dred Scott&#39;s name.) It was appealed to the United States Supreme Court. In Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), Chief Justice Taney ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that enslaved Africans had no standing under the constitution, so could not sue for freedom. The decision increased sectional tensions between the North and South.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War</h3><br>
<p>When the American Civil War broke out the Government commandeered the fort for the War Department as an induction station. At the time Steele was in arrears, having made only one payment.</p><br>
<p>Minnesota units mustered in at Fort Snelling:</p><br>
<p>1st Minnesota April 1861 (lineage today: 2nd Battalion 135th Infantry)</p><br>
<p>2nd Minnesota June–July 1861 (lineage today: 136th Infantry Regiment)</p><br>
<p>3rd Minnesota Oct–Nov 1861</p><br>
<p>4th Minnesota Oct–Nov 1861</p><br>
<p>5th Minnesota Mar–Apr 1862</p><br>
<p>6th Minnesota Sep–Nov 1862</p><br>
<p>7th Minnesota Aug–Oct 1862</p><br>
<p>8th Minnesota Jun–Sep 1862</p><br>
<p>9th Minnesota Aug–Oct 1862</p><br>
<p>10th Minnesota Aug–Nov 1862</p><br>
<p>11th Minnesota Aug–Sep 1864</p><br>
<p>1st Minnesota Infantry Battalion Aug–Sep 1864</p><br>
<p>1st Minnesota Sharpshooters Company Apr 1864</p><br>
<p>2nd Minnesota Sharpshooters Company Jan 1862</p><br>
<p>1st Minnesota Heavy Artillery Nov 1864 (today 151st Field Artillery)</p><br>
<p>1st Minnesota Light Artillery Battery Nov 1861</p><br>
<p>2nd Minnesota Light Artillery Battery Mar 1862</p><br>
<p>3rd Minnesota Light Artillery Battery Feb 1863</p><br>
<p>1st Minnesota Cavalry Oct–Dec 1862</p><br>
<p>2nd Minnesota Cavalry Regiment Dec 1863</p><br>
<p>1st Minnesota Light Cavalry(Bracket&#39;s Battalion) Sep–Nov 1861</p><br>
<p>Minnesota Independent Cavalry Battalion (Hatch&#39;s Battalion) Jul 1863</p><br>
<p>During the civil war, slightly over 100 African Americans approached Fort Snelling to volunteer for military service. Minnesota did not have an African American population large enough to field a "colored" unit as US Infantry units were segregated. Those volunteers were put on riverboats to Iowa and Missouri, states that had "colored" units: 1st Iowa Infantry Colored, 18th United States Colored Infantry Regiment, and the 68th United States Colored Infantry. The navy had a few volunteers also.</p><br>
<p>In 1830 Fort Snelling was the birthplace of John Taylor Wood. He served on the Merrimack at the Battle of Hampton Roads during the civil war.</p><br>
<p>In 1860 and 1863 the Minnesota State Fair was held at the fort.</p><br>
<p>In 1865 the Minnesota Central Railroad completed rail line from Northfield to Mendota. There the line crossed the river to Fort Snelling, continuing on to Minneapolis.</p><br>
<p>In June 1865 the 10th US Infantry Hq, D, and F Companies returned to the 10th&#39;s pre-war post at Fort Snelling. B and H Companies went to Fort Ridgely while A and I Companies went to Fort Ripley.</p><br>
<p>With the war over Steele submitted a claim of $162,000 for the forts use during the war. He hoped to gain the money&#39;s he still owed from the 1857 purchase. In 1873 an agreement was reached giving the Army the fort. In exchange, his debt was cleared and Steele was given title to 6,395 acres of the original Fort Snelling Reservation.Sale of Fort Snelling Reservation. Letter from the Secretary of War, transmitting papers relative to the sale of the Fort Snelling Reservation, 12-10-1868, University of Oklahoma College of Law</p><br>
<p>University of Oklahoma College of Law Digital Commons, American Indian and Alaskan Native Documents in the Congressional Serial Set: 1817–1899, p. 107, University of Oklahoma, 300 Timberdell Road, Norman, OK</p><br>
<h3>Dakota War</h3><br>
<p>On 19 August 1862, after hearing of attacks at the Lower Sioux Agency the day before, Governor Alexander Ramsey immediately went from St. Paul to Fort Snelling to assess military preparedness. Ramsey immediately ordered troops training at or near the fort to be detained from being sent east to fight in the American Civil War. On the same day, he asked his long-time friend and political rival, former Governor Henry Hastings Sibley, to lead an expedition up the Minnesota River to end the siege at Fort Ridgely. Ramsey gave him a commission as colonel and turned over four companies of the newly organized 6th Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment to Sibley at Fort Snelling.</p><br>
<p>The fort became the rendezvous point for the state and federal military forces during the Dakota War of 1862. During the war, the 6th, 7th, and 10th Minnesota Regiments did garrison duty at Fort Snelling.</p><br>
<p>To deal with the uprising, the United States Department of War created the Department of the Northwest, headquartered at St. Paul and commanded by Major General John Pope. Gen. Pope arrived in St. Paul on 15 September, and sent requests to the governors of Iowa and Wisconsin for additional troops. The 25th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment arrived at Fort Snelling on 22 September, the day before the decisive Battle of Wood Lake, and were sent immediately to Mankato and Paynesville. The 27th Iowa Infantry Regiment arrived at Fort Snelling in October, well after the war was over. Four companies stayed at Fort Snelling, while the other six marched north to Mille Lacs and returned to Fort Snelling on 4 November; three days later they were sent to Cairo, Illinois.,</p><br>
<p>winter 1862In November 1862, 1,658 Dakota, all innocent non-combatants, were moved from the Lower Sioux Agency to Fort Snelling, escorted by 300 soldiers under Lieutenant Colonel William Rainey Marshall. They were mostly Dakota women and children, but also included 22 Franco-Dakota and Anglo-Dakota men who had not been tried, as well as Christian and farmer Dakota such as Taopi, Chief Wabasha, Joseph Kawanke, Paul Mazakutemani, Lorenzo Lawrence, John Other Day and Snana who had opposed Chief Little Crow III and the "hostile" faction during the war.</p><br>
<p>An encampment was created below the fort on Pike Island. The Dakota had brought their own tipis and household goods with them, and set up more than 200 tipis. The Dakota wintered there in 1862–63. An estimated 102 to 300 Dakota died due to the harsh conditions, lack of food, measles and cholera.</p><br>
<p>Because of the prevailing attitudes towards all "Indians" the Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) that were living outside Mankato were also sent to Fort Snelling. There, they too were put on riverboats for Crow Creek. They lost 500 along the way and once there, they and the Dakota would lose another 1,300 to starvation.</p><br>
<p>In October 1863 Major E.A.C. Hatch and his Battalion were ordered from Fort Snelling to retrieve Dakota leaders who had crossed into Canada. Winter set in before they reached Pembina in Dakota Territory. Hatch made an encampment at Pembina, sending 20 men across the border. They encountered and killed Minnesota Dakota at St. Joseph in the Northwest Territory. At Fort Gerry two Dakota leaders were drugged, kidnapped and taken to Major Hatch for a bounty. The killings at St. Joseph caused almost 400 Dakota to turn themselves in to Hatch as well.</p><br>
<p>When conditions allowed, his Cavalry took the prisoners back to Fort Snelling. The two chiefs were hanged at the fort. They were Little Six (Sakpedan) and Medicine Bottle (Wakanozanzan). Chief Little Leaf managed to evade capture.</p><br>
<p>The next year four companies of the 30th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment arrived at Fort Snelling with three of them moving forward to Camp Ridgely en route to Alfred Sully&#39;s Dakota campaign.</p><br>
<h3>Indian Wars and Spanish–American War</h3><br>
<p>Steele had made plans and plotted his purchase to build the City of Fort Snelling. Steele, however, failed to make payments as agreed causing the government to revoke the sale and repossess the fort lands. Placing the Department of the Northwest at Fort Snelling led to the forts further development in 1866 when the department transitioned to the Department of Dakota. The next year the headquarters of the department moved to St. Paul. The HQ returned to the fort in 1879 and would remain until 1886 when it went back to St. Paul. After the Civil war Minneapolis began to expand into the forts surroundings.</p><br>
<p>In March 1869 the 20th Regiment was transferred from Louisiana to the Department of Dakota. Headquarters, band and E Company were posted to Fort Snelling.</p><br>
<p>The United States Army assigned the 7th Infantry to garrison the fort in 1878 and six companies arrived in September. That year Congress approved $100,000 to be spent on the Department of Dakota and the old forts walls were torn down for reuse in the new construction. The following October the remaining four companies of the 7th Infantry arrived and took over garrison duties. The six companies that had been the garrison departed to fight the Utes at White River, Colorado. They returned to Fort Snelling in 1880. The 25ths HQ, band and four companies would garrison the fort until 1888 when they were relieved by the 3rd Infantry. During the 1880s, companies of the 7th Cavalry would be at the fort. The 3rd Regiment would remain until 1898. Some of the garrison were sent to Cuba and fought in the Spanish–American War of 1898. During one of the last battles of the Indian Wars, six soldiers of the 3rd Infantry were killed at the Battle of Leech Lake October 5, 1898. Those killed were Major Wilkinson, Sgt. William Butler, and Privates Edward Lowe, John Olmstead (Onstead), John Schwolenstocker (aka Daniel F. Schwalenstocker), and Albert Ziebel. Those men were buried at north end of the post. Ten others were wounded in the battle. Among them were five Minnesotans: Privates George Wicker, Charles Turner, Edward Brown, Jes Jensen, and Gottfried Ziegler. Pvt. Oscar Burkard would receive the last Medal of Honor awarded during the Indian wars for his action on 5 October 1898 at Leech Lake with the 3rd Infantry. He was also from Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>In 1895 General E. C. Mason, post commandant, called for the preservation of what remained of the old fort, having realized something had been lost with the dismantling of the walls. Nothing came of the preservation proposal, but from 1901 through 1905 Congress would spend $2,000,000 on the Fort Snelling upper post.</p><br>
<p>In 1901 the 14th Infantry became the garrison followed by the 28th in 1904. From 1905 to 1911 squadrons of the 3rd, 2nd, and 4th Cavalry Regiments were the occupants of the new cavalry barracks on the upper post.</p><br>
<p>In June 1916 President Wilson had General Pershing in Mexico on the trail of Poncho Villa. To provide border security Minnesota&#39;s entire National Guard was activated at Fort Snelling, comprising three Infantry Regiments and one Artillery. A camp was created on the upper post named Camp Bobleter for organizing the activation. Upon returning to Minnesota the 1st Infantry Regiment was re-designated the 135th Infantry. It is the direct descendant of the 1st Minnesota formed at the fort in 1862.</p><br>
<p>Sgt. Charles H. Welch was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions at Little Big Horn in 1876. His award lists his home as Fort Snelling. Welch enlisted in the Army on June 8, 1873, at Fort Snelling, and was assigned to D Company 7th USA Cavalry.</p><br>
<h3>World War I</h3><br>
<p>Once the United States entered the war the fort became a recruit processing station. For WWI the 41st Infantry was constituted at the fort in May 1917 and inactivated in September 1921. The army established an officer training school which closed when the war ended.</p><br>
<p>In 1921 the 3rd Infantry was in Ohio and ordered to report to Fort Snelling with no designated transport. They marched the 940 miles only to have the 2nd and 3rd Battalions inactivated upon arriving at Fort Snelling. The following June the 1st Battalion was inactivated only for a short time. The regiment would remain at Fort Snelling until 1941. Also in 1921 the US Army created the 88th Divisional area in Iowa, Minnesota and North Dakota. Fort Snelling became a Citizens Military Training Camp (CMTC) for the 351st Infantry Regiment of the 88th Division. The Officers of the unit worked with the CCC program at Fort Snelling. When Pearl Harbor happened the regiment&#39;s officers were immediately activated for active duty units so that when the 351st was called up it had very few officers to meet the call.</p><br>
<h3>Civilian Conservation Corps</h3><br>
<p>In 1933 the Civilian Conservation Corps was created by Executive Order 6101.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>During WWII the Fort Snelling military reservation served both the army and navy. The army had an enlistment center there that processed 300,000 enlistees. The War Department chose the base to be the site of the armys Military Railroad Service(MRS) HQ in 1942 and a winter warfare program later. The MRS was closely linked to commercial railroading with multiple Minnesota railroads sponsoring MRS Railroad Operating Battalions. That year the Army created two Railroad Divisions with the Great Northern Railroad sponsoring the 704th. Even though sponsored by the Great Northern, the 732nd trained at Fort Sam Houston. It landed in France and was one of two spearhead ROBs. The 732nd operated in support of Gen. Pattons 3rd Armored Division and went into Germany with them. During the Battle of the Bulge Patton&#39;s armor would come to the 732nds trains to refuel. The Army positioned field Artillery directly adjacent to the rail lines so that the 732nd delivered ammo directly to the guns. The 757th Railroad Shop Battalion, sponsored by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, set up operations at Cherbourg. The Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway sponsored the 714th ROB in the Territory of Alaska.</p><br>
<p>In 1944 the Military Intelligence Service Language School (MISLS) for Japanese language had outgrown its facilities at Camp Savage and it relocated to Fort Snelling. With the move the curriculum was expanded with Chinese.</p><br>
<p>It had 125 classrooms, 160 instructors, and 3000 students. June 1946 would see the fort&#39;s 21st and last commencement at the school. The War Department constructed scores of buildings at the fort for housing and teaching during the war. The language school was relocated to Monterey, California, in June 1946.</p><br>
<p>In 1943 the navy opened an air station on the north side of Wold-Chamberlain Field that existed until 1970. That area is now used by reserve units and the Minnesota Air National Guard. WWII Fort Snelling facilities covered 1,521 acres at war&#39;s end.</p><br>
<h3>Post-war 20th century</h3><br>
<p>The War Department decommissioned Fort Snelling a second time on 14 October 1946. Various federal agencies were allowed to request land parcels from the land that made up Fort Snelling Unorganized Territory. Since the army departed, the majority of the structures fell into disrepair. In 1960, the fort itself was listed as a National Historic Landmark, citing its importance as the first major military post in the region, and its later history in the development of the United States Army.</p><br>
<p>Many acres of fort land have been lost to roads. Construction of the Mendota Bridge ran a state highway across old fort land. More fort land was lost when an Interstate 494 interchange was added as well as access roads to the International Airport, National Cemetery, VA Hospital and bridge into St. Paul.</p><br>
<p>In 1963 Fort Snelling became headquarters of United States Army Reserve 205th Infantry Brigade, that had units throughout the upper Midwest. In 1994 that ended as a part of force-structure eliminations.</p><br>
<p>The fort has been reconstructed to replicate its original appearance starting in 1965. Time and use had been hard on the original fort. The walls, barracks and buildings had been removed. There was archaeological work done at the site in 1957–1958 and again in 1966–1967. At that time all that remained of the original fort were the round and hexagonal towers. State archaeologists located the foundations of all that had been demolished allowing them to pin point the structures they reconstructed. The Minnesota Historical Society has since made the original walled fort or "Lower Post" into an interactive interpretive center. It has been staffed from spring to early fall with personnel attired in period costumes. Although restoring the original fort assured its survival, many of the buildings constructed later, composing the "Upper Post", suffered serious disrepair and neglect. Many of them have been demolished.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>In May 2006, the National Trust for Historic Preservation added Upper Post of Fort Snelling to its list of "America&#39;s Most Endangered Places". Some restoration on historic Fort Snelling continues. Crews removed the flagpole from the iconic round tower and installed it in the ground, a change since its opening as a historic fort.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<h3>USS Fort Snelling (LSD-30)</h3><br>
<p>Fort Snelling (LSD-30) was laid down on 17 August 1953 by Ingalls Shipbuilding Corp., Pascagoula, Miss. launched on 16 July 1954, sponsored by Mrs. Robert P. Briscoe, wife of Vice Admiral Briscoe; and commissioned on 24 January 1955, Commander H. Marvin-Smith in command.</p><br>
<p>Mount Vernon is the former residence and plantation of George Washington, a Founding Father, commander of the Continental Army in the Revolutionary War, and the first president of the United States, and his wife, Martha. An American landmark, the estate lies on the banks of the Potomac River in Fairfax County, Virginia, approximately 15 miles south of Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<p>The Washington family acquired land in the area in 1674. Around 1734, the family embarked on an expansion of its estate that continued under George Washington, who began leasing the estate in 1754 before becoming its sole owner in 1761.</p><br>
<p>The mansion was built of wood in a loose Palladian style; the original house was built in about 1734 by George Washingtons father Augustine Washington. George Washington expanded the house twice, once in the late 1750s and again in the 1770s. It remained Washingtons home for the rest of his life. Following his death in 1799, the estate progressively declined under the ownership of several successive generations of the family as revenues were insufficient to maintain it adequately.</p><br>
<p>In 1858, the houses historical importance was recognized and was taken over by the Mount Vernon Ladies Association, along with part of the Washington property estate. The mansion and its surrounding buildings escaped damage from the American Civil War, which damaged many properties in the Confederate States of America during the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Mount Vernon was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is still owned and maintained in trust by the Mount Vernon Ladies Association, being open to the public daily in recognition of George Washingtons 1794 acknowledgement of public interest in his estate: "I have no objection to any sober or orderly person&#39;s gratifying their curiosity in viewing the buildings, Gardens, &ca. about Mount Vernon."</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>When George Washingtons ancestors acquired the estate, it was known as Little Hunting Creek Plantation, named after the nearby Little Hunting Creek. When Washingtons older half-brother, Lawrence Washington, inherited it, he renamed it after Edward Vernon, a vice admiral and his commanding officer during the War of Jenkins&#39; Ear who captured Portobelo from the Spanish. When George Washington inherited the property, he retained the name.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings and grounds</h2><br>
<p>The estate contained 8,000 acre when George Washington lived there. As of 2011, the property consists of 500 acre, including the mansion and over 30 other buildings near the riverfront.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>Construction on the present mansion at Mount Vernon began in approximately 1734 and was built in incremental stages by an unknown architect under the supervision of Augustine Washington. The present day mansion is 11,028 ft&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>In 1774, the second expansion began. A two-story wing was added to the south side. Two years later a large two-story room was added to the north side. Two single-story secondary wings were built in 1775. These secondary wings, which house the servants hall on the northern side and the kitchen on the southern side, are connected to the corps de logis by symmetrical, quadrant colonnades, built in 1778. The completion of the colonnades cemented the classical Palladian arrangement of the complex and formed a distinct cour d&#39;honneur, known at Mount Vernon as Mansion Circle, giving the house its imposing perspective.</p><br>
<p>The corps de logis has a hipped roof with dormers and the secondary wings have gable roofs with dormers. In addition to its second story, the importance of the corps de logis is further emphasized by two large chimneys piercing the roof and by a cupola surmounting the center of the house; this octagonal focal point has a short spire topped by a gilded dove of peace. This placement of the cupola is more in the earlier Carolean style than Palladian and was probably incorporated to improve ventilation of the enlarged attic and enhance the overall symmetry of the structure and the two wings; a similar cupola crowns the Governor&#39;s House at Williamsburg, of which Washington would have been aware.</p><br>
<p>Though no architect is known to have designed Mount Vernon, some attribute the design to John Ariss, a prominent Virginia architect who designed Paynes Church in Fairfax County (now destroyed) and likely Mount Airy in Richmond County. Other sources credit Colonel Richard Blackburn, who also designed Rippon Lodge in Prince William County and the first Falls Church. Blackburns granddaughter Anne married Bushrod Washington, Georges nephew, and is interred at the Washingtons&#39; tomb on the grounds. Most architectural historians believe that the design of Mount Vernon is solely attributable to Washington alone and that the involvement of any other architects is based on conjecture.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The rooms at Mount Vernon have mostly been restored to their appearance at the time of George and Martha Washingtons occupancy. Rooms include Washingtons study, two dining rooms, the larger of which is known as the New Room, the West Parlour, the Front Parlour, the kitchen and some bedrooms.</p><br>
<p>The interior design follows the classical concept of the exterior, but owing to the mansion&#39;s piecemeal evolution, the internal architectural featuresthe doorcases, mouldings and plasterworkare not consistently faithful to one specific period of the 18th-century revival of classical architecture. Instead they range from Palladianism to a finer and later neoclassicism in the style of Robert Adam. This varying of the classical style is best exemplified in the doorcases and surrounds of the principal rooms. In the West Parlour and Small Dining rooms there are doorcases complete with ionic columns and full pediments, whereas in the hall and passageways the doors are given broken pediments supported by an architrave. Many of the rooms are lined with painted panelling and have ceilings ornamented by plasterwork in a Neoclassical style; much of this plasterwork can be attributed to an English craftsman, John Rawlins, who arrived from London in 1771 bringing with him the interior design motifs then fashionable in the British capital.</p><br>
<p>Visitors to Mount Vernon now see Washingtons study, a room to which in the 18th century only a privileged few were granted entry. This simply furnished room has a combined bathroom, dressing room and office; the room was so private that few contemporary descriptions exist. Its walls are lined with naturally grained paneling and matching bookcases. In contrast to the privacy of the study, since Washingtons time, the grandest, most public and principal reception room has been the so-called New Room or Large Dining Rooma two-storied salon notable for its large Palladian window, occupying the whole of the mansion&#39;s northern elevation, and its fine Neoclassical marble chimneypiece. The history of this chimneypiece to some degree explains the overall restrained style of the house. When it was donated to Washington by English merchant Samuel Vaughan, Washington was initially reluctant to accept the gift, stating that it was "too elegant & costly I fear for my own room, & republican stile of living."</p><br>
<p>Efforts have been made to restore the rooms and maintain the atmosphere of the 18th century; this has been achieved by using original color schemes and by displaying furniture, carpets and decorative objects which are contemporary to the house. The rooms contain portraits and former possessions of George Washington and his family.</p><br>
<h3>Grounds</h3><br>
<p>The gardens and grounds contain English boxwoods, taken from cuttings sent by Major General Henry Lee III a Governor of Virginia and the father of Robert E. Lee, which were planted in 1786 by George Washington and now crowd the entry path. A carriage road skirts a grassy bowling green to approach the mansion entrance. To each side of the green is a garden contained by red brick walls. These Colonial Revival gardens grew the households vegetables, fruit and other perishable items for consumption. The upper garden, located to the north, is bordered by the greenhouse. Ha-ha walls are used to separate the working farm from the pleasure grounds that Washington created for his family and guests. The overseers quarter, spinning room, salt house, and gardener&#39;s house are between the upper garden and the mansion.</p><br>
<p>The lower garden, or southern garden, is bordered on the east by the storehouse and clerks quarters, smokehouse, wash house, laundry yard, and coach house. A paddock and stable are on the southern border of the garden; east of them, a little down the hillside, is the icehouse. The original tomb is located along the river. The newer tomb in which the bodies of George and Martha Washington have rested since 1831 is south of the fruit garden; the slave burial ground is nearby, a little farther down the hillside. A "Forest Trail" runs through woods down to a recreated pioneer farm site on low ground near the river; the 4 acre working farm includes a re-creation of Washingtons 16-sided treading barn.</p><br>
<p>A museum and education center are on the grounds and exhibit examples of Washington&#39;s survey equipment, weapons, and clothing, and the dentures worn by Washington as the first USA president. In 2013, the Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington opened on Mount Vernon; the library, which is open for scholarship by appointment only, fosters new scholarship about George Washington and safeguards original Washington books and manuscripts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Washington family</h3><br>
<p>In 1674, John Washington, the great-grandfather of George Washington, and Nicholas Spencer came into possession of the land from which Mount Vernon plantation would be carved, originally known by its Piscataway name of Epsewasson. The successful patent on the acreage was largely executed by Spencer, who acted as agent for his cousin Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper, the English landowner who controlled the Northern Neck of Virginia, in which the tract lay.</p><br>
<p>When John Washington died in 1677, his son Lawrence, George Washingtons grandfather, inherited his fathers stake in the property. In 1690, he agreed to formally divide the estimated 5,000 acre (20 km) estate with the heirs of Nicholas Spencer, who had died the previous year. The Spencers took the larger southern half bordering Dogue Creek in the September 1674 land grant from Lord Culpeper, leaving the Washingtons the portion along Little Hunting Creek. The Spencer heirs paid Lawrence Washington 2,500 lb of tobacco as compensation for their choice.</p><br>
<p>Lawrence Washington died in 1698, bequeathing the property to his daughter Mildred. On 16 April 1726, she agreed to a one-year lease on the estate to her brother Augustine Washington, George Washingtons father, for a peppercorn rent; a month later the lease was superseded by Augustines purchase of the property for £180. He built the original house on the site around 1734, when he and his family moved from Popes Creek to Eppsewasson, which he renamed Little Hunting Creek. The original stone foundations of what appears to have been a two-roomed house with a further two rooms in a half-story above are still partially visible in the present houses cellar.</p><br>
<p>Augustine Washington recalled his eldest son, Lawrence, Georges half-brother, home from school in England in 1738, and set him up on the familys Little Hunting Creek tobacco plantation, thereby allowing Augustine to move his family back to Fredericksburg at the end of 1739. In 1739, Lawrence, having reached 21 years of age, began buying up parcels of land from the adjoining Spencer tract, starting with a plot around the grist mill on Dogue Creek. In mid-1740, Lawrence received a coveted officers commission in the British Army and made preparations to go off to war in the Caribbean with the newly formed American Regiment to fight in the War of Jenkins Ear. He served under Admiral Edward Vernon; returning home, he named his estate after his commander.</p><br>
<h3>George Washington</h3><br>
<p>Lawrence died in 1752, and his will stipulated that his widow should own a life estate in Mount Vernon, the remainder interest falling to his half-brother George; George Washington was already living at Mount Vernon and probably managing the plantation. Lawrences widow, Anne Fairfax, remarried into the Lee family and moved out. Following the death of Anne and Lawrences only surviving child in 1754, George, as executor of his brothers estate leased his sister-in-laws estate. Upon the death of Anne Fairfax in 1761, he succeeded to the remainder interest and became sole owner of the property.</p><br>
<p>In 1758, Washington began the first of two major additions and improvements by raising the house to two-and-a-half stories. The great majority of the work was performed by enslaved African Americans and artisans.</p><br>
<h4>Agriculture and enterprise</h4><br>
<p>George Washington expanded the estate by purchasing surrounding parcels of land beginning in the late 1750s and was still adding to the estate into the 1780s, including the River Farm estate. From 1759 until the Revolutionary War, Washington, who at the time aspired to become a prominent agriculturist, had five separate farms as part of his estate. He took a scientific approach to farming and kept extensive and meticulous records of both labor and results.</p><br>
<p>In a letter dated 20 September 1765, Washington writes about receiving poor returns for his tobacco production:</p><br>
<p>In the same letter he asks about the prices of flax and hemp, with a view to their production:</p><br>
<p>The tobacco market declined, and many planters in Northern Virginia converted to mixed crops. By 1766, Washington ceased growing tobacco at Mount Vernon and replaced the crop with wheat, corn, and other grains. Besides hemp and flax, he experimented with 60 other crops including cotton and silk. He also derived income from a gristmill which produced cornmeal and flour for export and also ground neighbors grain for fees. Washington similarly sold the services of the estates looms and blacksmith.</p><br>
<p>Washington built and operated a small fishing fleet, permitting Mount Vernon to export fish. Washington practiced the selective breeding of sheep in an effort to produce better quality wool. He was not as invested in animal husbandry as he was in cropping experiments, which were elaborate and included complex field rotations, nitrogen fixing crops and a range of soil amendments. The Washington household consumed a wider range of protein sources than was typical for the Chesapeake population of his day, which consumed a great deal of beef.</p><br>
<p>The new crops were less labor-intensive than tobacco; hence, the estate had a surplus of slaves. But Washington refused to break up families for sale. Washington began to hire skilled indentured servants from Europe to train the redundant slaves for service on and off the estate.</p><br>
<p>Following his service in the war, Washington returned to Mount Vernon and in 1785–1786 spent a great deal of effort improving the landscaping of the estate. It is estimated that during his two terms as President of the United States (1789–1797), Washington spent a total of 434 days in residence at Mount Vernon. After his presidency, Washington tended to repairs to the buildings, socializing, and further gardening. In 1797, farm manager James Anderson, a recent Scottish immigrant, suggested the establishment of a whisky distillery, which proved to be the estate&#39;s most profitable business venture over the decade of its operation.</p><br>
<h4>George Washington&#39;s will</h4><br>
<p>In his will, written several months before his death in December 1799, George Washington left directions for the emancipation of all the slaves who belonged to him. Of the 317 slaves at Mount Vernon in 1799, a little less than half, 123 individuals, belonged to George Washington. Under the terms of his will, these slaves were to be set free upon Martha Washington&#39;s death.</p><br>
<p>In accordance with state law, George Washington stipulated in his will that elderly slaves or those who were too sick to work were to be supported throughout their lives by his estate. Children without parents, or those whose families were too poor or indifferent to see to their education, were to be bound out (or apprenticed) to masters and mistresses who would teach them reading, writing, and a useful trade, until they were ultimately freed at the age of twenty-five.</p><br>
<p>When Martha Washingtons first husband, Daniel Parke Custis, died without a will, she received a life interest in one-third of his estate, including the slaves. Neither George nor Martha Washington could free these slaves by law. Upon Marthas death, these slaves reverted to the Custis estate and were divided among her grandchildren. By 1799, 153 slaves at Mount Vernon were part of this dower property.</p><br>
<p>Martha signed a deed of manumission in December 1800. Abstracts of court records in Fairfax County, Virginia record this transaction. The slaves received their freedom on January 1, 1801.</p><br>
<h2>Washington&#39;s tomb</h2><br>
<p>On December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours riding over the plantation, in snow, sleet, and freezing rain. He ate his supper later that evening without changing from his wet clothes. The following day, he awoke with a severe sore throat (either quinsy or acute epiglottitis) and became increasingly hoarse as the day progressed. All the available medical treatments failed to improve his condition, and he died at Mount Vernon at around 10 pm on December 14, 1799, aged 67.</p><br>
<p>On December 18, a funeral was held at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Congress passed a joint resolution to construct a marble monument in the United States Capitol for his body, an initiative supported by Martha. In December 1800, the United States House passed an appropriations bill for $200,000 (~$ in ) to build the mausoleum, which was to be a pyramid with a base 100 ft square. Southerners who wanted his body to remain at Mount Vernon defeated the measure.</p><br>
<p>In accordance with his will, Washington was entombed in a family crypt he had built upon first inheriting the estate. It was in disrepair by 1799, so Washingtons will also requested that a new, larger tomb be built. This was not executed until 1831, nearly the centennial of his birth. The need for a new tomb was confirmed when an unsuccessful attempt was made to steal his skull. A joint Congressional committee in early 1832 debated the removal of Washingtons body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol, built by Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s. Southern opposition was intense, exacerbated by an ever-growing rift between North and South. Congressman Wiley Thompson of Georgia expressed the Southerners&#39; fears when he said:</p><br>
<p>In 1831, the bodies of George and Martha Washington, along with other members of the family, were moved from the old crypt to the new family tomb. On October 7, 1837, Washingtons remains, encased in a lead inner casket, were transferred from the closed tomb to a sarcophagus presented by John Struthers of Philadelphia. It was placed on the right side of the gateway to the tomb. A similar structure was provided for Marthas remains, which was placed on the left. Other members of the Washington family are interred in an inner vault, behind the vestibule containing the sarcophagi.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation, legacy, and tourism</h2><br>
<p>Following Martha Washingtons death in 1802, George Washingtons will was carried out in accordance with the terms of his bequests. The largest part of his estate, which included both his papers and Mount Vernon, passed to his nephew, Bushrod Washington, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>. The younger Washington and his wife then moved to Mount Vernon.</p><br>
<p>Bushrod Washington did not inherit much cash and was unable to support the upkeep of the estate&#39;s mansion on the proceeds from the property and his Supreme Court salary. He sold some of his own slaves to gain working capital.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>At Google Books</p><br>
<p>However, the farms&#39; low revenues left him short, and he was unable to adequately maintain the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Following Bushrod Washingtons death in 1829, ownership of the plantation passed to George Washingtons grandnephew, John Augustine Washington II. After he died in 1832, his wife, Jane Charlotte inherited the estate, and her son began managing it. Upon her death in 1855, John Augustine Washington III inherited the property. As his funds dwindled and the wear and tear of hundreds of visitors began to take its toll, Washington could do little to maintain the mansion and its surroundings.</p><br>
<p>Washington suggested to the United States Congress that the federal government purchase the mansion. However, Congress paid little interest to Washingtons offer, as the legislature was focusing on the conditions that shortly led to the American Civil War. Washington then traveled to Richmond, where he was equally unsuccessful in appealing to the Virginia General Assembly for the state to purchase the mansion. The mansions decline continued.</p><br>
<p>In 1858, Washington sold the mansion and a portion of the estates land to the Mount Vernon Ladies Association, which was under the leadership of Ann Pamela Cunningham. The association paid the final installment of the purchase price of $200,000 ($6.3 million in 2020 dollars) in December 1859, taking possession in February 1860. The estate first opened to the public during that year.</p><br>
<p>The estate served as a neutral ground for both sides during the Civil War, although fighting raged across the nearby countryside. Troops from both the Union and the Confederacy toured the building. The two women caretakers asked that the soldiers leave their arms behind and either change to civilian clothes or at least cover their uniforms. They usually did as asked.</p><br>
<p>Harrison Howell Dodge became the third resident superintendent in 1885. During his 52 years overseeing the estate, he doubled the facilitys acreage, improved the grounds, and added many historic artifacts to the collections. Dodge reviewed George Washington&#39;s writings about the estate, visited other Colonial-era gardens, and traveled to England to see gardens dating from the Georgian period. Using that knowledge, Dodge oversaw the restoration of the site completed by Charles Wilson Killam, and put in place a number of improvements that Washington had planned but had never implemented.</p><br>
<p>Charles Wall was assistant superintendent from 1929 to 1937, then resident superintendent for 39 years. He oversaw restoration of the house by Killam and planted greenery consistent with what was used in the 18th century. In 1974, a campaign he organized was successful in preserving as parkland areas in Maryland across the Potomac River from Mount Vernon, as part of an effort to retain the bucolic vista from the house. His office was the same one used in the 18th century by Washington.</p><br>
<p>Steamboats began to carry tourists to the Mount Vernon estate in 1878. In 1892, the Washington, Alexandria and Mount Vernon Electric Railway opened, providing electric trolley service between Alexandria and the estate. The electric railway and its successors carried tourists and others between Washington, D.C., and Mount Vernon from 1896 to 1932, when the federal government acquired part of its route on which to construct the George Washington Memorial Parkway.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>1904 map of Alexandria County (now Arlington County), the city of Alexandria and southeastern Fairfax County showing the route of the Washington, Alexandria & Mt. Vernon Railroad (Wash. Alex. & Mt.V. R.R.):</p><br>
<p>The parkway, originally named the Mount Vernon Memorial Parkway, opened in 1932.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, the estate opened a reconstruction of George Washingtons distillery on the site of Washingtons original distillery, a short distance from his mansion on the Potomac River. Construction of the distillery cost $2.1 million. The fully functional replica received special legislation from the Virginia General Assembly to produce up to 5,000 gal of whiskey annually, for sale only at the Mount Vernon gift shop.</p><br>
<p>Frank Coleman, spokesman for the Distilled Spirits Council that funded the reconstruction, said the distillery "will become the equivalent of a national distillery museum" and serve as a gateway to the American Whiskey Trail. In 2019, Mount Vernon began an annual whiskey festival.</p><br>
<p>As of 2020, the estate had received more than 85 million visitors.</p><br>
<p>Mount Vernon remains a privately owned property. The non-profit Mount Vernon Ladies Association has not received any funds from the federal government to support the restoration and maintenance of the mansion and the estates 500 acre grounds or its educational programs and activities.</p><br>
<p>The association derives its income from charitable donations and the sales of tickets, produce and goods to visitors. These enable the Association to continue its mission "to preserve, restore, and manage the estate of George Washington to the highest standards and to educate visitors and people throughout the world about the life and legacies of George Washington, so that his example of character and leadership will continue to inform and inspire future generations." Admission to Mount Vernon is free on Presidents Day (the third Monday of February) and on George Washingtons birthday (February 22).</p><br>
<p>Mount Vernon was featured in a 1-cent United States postage stamp in 1936 within the Army and Navy Commemorative Series. The green stamp, which was the first in the series, also contained portraits of George Washington and Nathanael Greene, a Major General of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>In 1956, a 1.5-cent stamp within the Liberty Issue of USA postage stamps memorialized Mount Vernon as a national shrine. The Liberty Issue was originally planned to honor six presidents, six famous Americans, and six historic national shrines. The Mount Vernon stamp, which featured a view of Washingtons home facing the Potomac River, was the issues first that commemorated a shrine.</p><br>
<p>Mount Vernon was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Development and improvement of the estate is an ongoing concern. Following a $110 million fundraising campaign, two new buildings that GWWO, Inc./Architects had designed opened in 2006 as venues for additional background on George Washington and the American Revolution. The Ford Orientation Center introduces visitors to George Washington and Mount Vernon with displays and a film. The Donald W. Reynolds Museum and Education Center houses many artefacts related to Washington along with multimedia displays and further films using modern entertainment technology.</p><br>
<p>Mount Vernon was put on the tentative list for World Heritage Site status in the early 2000s. It was submitted but failed to get approved. In 2014, Mount Vernon awarded its first Cyrus A. Ansary Prize for Courage and Character to former President George H. W. Bush.</p><br>
<p>The airspace surrounding Mount Vernon is restricted to prevent damage from aircraft vibrations. As a consequence, overhead/aerial photography has been limited and requires unique approaches.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Vernon Viewshed</h3><br>
<p>In 1955, a 485-acre farm across from Mount Vernon went up for sale. There were rumors that an oil company was to buy it. Charles Wagner, a resident of the Moyaone Association, a community next to the proposed site, reached out to Charles Wall, the Resident Director of Mount Vernon. The Mount Vernon Ladies&#39; Association and its then leader, Ohio Member of Congress Frances P. Bolton, had expressed a desire to protect the view from Mount Vernon. At this point Bolton, Wagner, Wall, and Moyaone resident Robert W. Straus developed a decades-long plan to protect the Mount Vernon viewshed, which came to be known as Operation Overview.</p><br>
<p>The first step was taken in 1957 when Bolton founded the Accokeek Foundation, one of the nation&#39;s first land trusts. The Foundation was used to purchase 200 acres of land across from Mount Vernon to help preserve the area,</p><br>
<p>In 1961 and at Bolton&#39;s instigation, a joint resolution to preserve the viewshed was introduced in the United States Senate by Senator Clinton Anderson with identical text in the United States House of Representatives by Representative John P. Saylor. The resolution was quickly passed and signed by President John F. Kennedy. Its purpose was to "preserve lands which provide the principal overview from the Mount Vernon Estate and Fort Washington" in order to designate 133 acre around Mockley Point, which was to be the site of water treatment plant, as a national landmark. The resolution also authorized the National Park Service to receive donations and scenic easements from adjacent communities. At this point Bolton and the Accokeek Foundation transferred their land to the National Park Service to form Piscataway Park. In addition, Moyaone Association residents transferred conservation easements to the Park Service to further protect the viewshed. In 2020, the Moyaone Reserve was given National Register of Historic Places status.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<h3>Public transportation</h3><br>
<p>The Fairfax Connector Routes 101, 151 and 152 buses travel daily between the Mount Vernon estate and the Huntington station on Washington Metro&#39;s Yellow Line.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The Route 11C Metrobus travels between the estate and the Braddock Road station on Metro&#39;s Blue and Yellow Lines during weekday peak hours.</p><br>
<h3>Cycling, running, and walking</h3><br>
<p>The 17 mi-long Mount Vernon Trail travels along the George Washington Memorial Parkway and the Potomac River between the Mount Vernon estate and Rosslyn in Arlington County, Virginia, where it connects to the Custis Trail. The shared-use path is a part of the Potomac Heritage Trail, the East Coast Greenway and USA Bicycle Route 1.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Vernon Trail connects to shared-use paths that travel on the Francis Scott Key Bridge, the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge, the Arlington Memorial Bridge and the George Mason Memorial Bridge (one of the 14th Street bridges). The bridges cross the river into Washington, D.C., where their shared-use paths connect to the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway Trail, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal towpath and the Capital Crescent Trail.</p><br>
<p>The Long Island Motor Parkway, also known as the Vanderbilt Parkway, Vanderbilt Motor Parkway, or Motor Parkway, was a limited-access parkway on Long Island, New York, United States. It was the first highway designed for automobile use only. The parkway was privately built by William Kissam Vanderbilt II with overpasses and bridges to remove most intersections. It officially opened on October 10, 1908. It closed in 1938 when it was taken over by the state of New York in lieu of back taxes. Parts of the parkway survive today, used as sections of other roads or as a bicycle trail.</p><br>
<h2>Origins and construction</h2><br>
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<p>William Kissam Vanderbilt II, the great-grandson of Cornelius Vanderbilt, was an auto-racing enthusiast and created the Vanderbilt Cup, the first major road racing competition, in 1904. He ran the races on local roads in Nassau County during the first decade of the 20th century, but the deaths of two spectators and injury to many others showed the need to eliminate racing on residential streets. Vanderbilt responded by establishing a company to build a graded, banked and grade-separated highway suitable for racing that was also free of the horse manure dust often churned up by motor cars. The resulting Long Island Motor Parkway, with its banked turns, guard rails, reinforced concrete roadbed, and limited-access, was the first expressway in the world.</p><br>
<p>The road was originally planned to stretch for 70 mi in and out of New York City as far as Riverhead, the county seat of Suffolk County and point of division for the north and south forks of Long Island. Only 45 mi (from Queens in New York City to Lake Ronkonkoma) were constructed, at a cost of $6 million. a 10 mi section opened as far as modern Bethpage. It hosted races in 1908 and on the full road in 1909 and 1910, but an accident in the 1910 Vanderbilt Cup, killing two riding mechanics with additional injuries, caused the New York Legislature to ban racing except on race tracks, ending its career as a racing road.</p><br>
<p>By 1911, the road was extended to Lake Ronkonkoma. Its western stretch was also extended from Great Neck to what is now Fresh Meadows. The Long Island Motor Parkway was the first road designed exclusively for automobile use, the first concrete highway in the United States, and the first to use overpasses and bridges to eliminate intersections.</p><br>
<h3>AAA Champ Car Venue</h3><br>
<p>The parkway was used for four American Automobile Association Contest Board Champ Car races. The first one was held on October 30, 1909, and was won by Harry Grant. Three races were held on October 10, 1910, in front of a crowd estimated at 300,000 people. Grant won the main 22-lap event. A 15-lap event was won by Frank Gelnaw, and Bill Endicott won a 10-lap event.</p><br>
<p>Reference:</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The Long Island Motor Parkway was a limited-access toll road, with access at a small number of toll booths, joined to local roads by short connector roads. Traffic could turn left between the parkway and connectors, crossing oncoming traffic, so it was not a controlled-access highway (or "freeway" as later defined by the federal government&#39;s Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices). Access points were:</p><br>
<p>Nassau Boulevard (NY 25D) west of Francis Lewis Boulevard. The right-of-way of Nassau Boulevard was later used for the Long Island Expressway (I-495).</p><br>
<p>Hillside Avenue (NY 25B) – Springfield Boulevard south of 77th Avenue</p><br>
<p>Great Neck – Lakeville Road south of Lake Road</p><br>
<p>Roslyn – Roslyn Road south of Barnyard Lane</p><br>
<p>Mineola – Jericho Turnpike (NY 25) at Rudolph Drive</p><br>
<p>Garden City – Clinton Road at Vanderbilt Court</p><br>
<p>Meadowbrook – Merrick Avenue north of Stewart Avenue</p><br>
<p>Bethpage – Hicksville Road (NY 107) south of Avoca Avenue; Round Swamp Road south of Old Bethpage Road</p><br>
<p>Melville – Broad Hollow Road (NY 110) north of Spagnoli Road</p><br>
<p>Deer Park – Deer Park Road (NY 231)</p><br>
<p>East Commack – Commack Spur along Harned Road (CR 14) to Jericho Turnpike (NY 25)</p><br>
<p>Brentwood – Washington Avenue</p><br>
<p>Ronkonkoma – Rosevale Avenue</p><br>
<p>When the parkway opened, the toll was set at $2. It was reduced to $1.50 in 1912, $1 in 1917, and 40 cents in 1938. The first six toll houses were designed by architect John Russell Pope, designer of the Jefferson Memorial and the rotunda in the American Museum of Natural History. The toll houses were designed to include living space for the toll collectors so that toll could be collected at all hours. The most prominent remaining toll house is in Garden City. Once located at the junction of Clinton Road and Vanderbilt Court, it was moved in 1989 to 230 Seventh Street, now the headquarters of the Garden City Chamber of Commerce.</p><br>
<h2>Demise</h2><br>
<p>Roadway design advances of the 1920s rendered the road obsolete less than 20 years after construction. At the same time Robert Moses was planning the Northern State Parkway. In 1929, the owners and some Long Island officials proposed that New York State should buy the road and integrate it into the state parkway system, despite its narrow roadway (varying from 16 to 22 feet wide) and steep bridges not meeting new standards. Moses opposed the idea, stating that the Long Island Motor Parkway had been "a white elephant for the last twenty years" and that it would need significant reconstruction to integrate it into the state parkway system.</p><br>
<p>The completion of the Northern State Parkway signaled the end for the road. In 1937, the portion of the Long Island Motor Parkway in Suffolk County was donated to Suffolk County. In July 1938, the remainder of the parkway&#39;s land was given to Nassau County and the Long Island State Parks Commission.</p><br>
<h2>Remaining portions</h2><br>
<p>Most of the road in Queens is a bicycle trail from Cunningham Park to Alley Pond Park, part of the Brooklyn–Queens Greenway. It starts at Francis Lewis Boulevard in Cunningham Park. The path runs south, parallel with 199th Street, and crosses a bridge over 73rd Avenue. It turns east toward Francis Lewis Boulevard, crossing it on a bridge. It continues through the park, crossing under the Clearview Expressway through a tunnel, and then over Hollis Hills Terrace on a third bridge before leaving the park. There is access to 209th and 210th Streets in Hollis Hills. It goes through a wooded corridor, soon crossing over Bell Boulevard on a bridge, and provides access to 220th Street just east of Bell Boulevard. After crossing Springfield Boulevard on another bridge, there is access to Cloverdale Boulevard where the main line of the greenway goes north. The road continues as a spur route that enters Alley Pond Park, crosses under the Grand Central Parkway, and provides access to Union Turnpike before ending at Union Turnpike and Winchester Boulevard at the park&#39;s eastern boundary.</p><br>
<p>The Nassau County roadway has been redeveloped, or turned into a right of way for Long Island Power Authority transmission lines. A small section of the roadway remains in Lake Success in Great Neck, though unmarked and not open to the public. Most of this section is currently within the property of Great Neck South High School. The adjacent former Great Neck toll house was incorporated into the building of a private house.</p><br>
<p>Another section may be seen on either side of Willis Avenue on the boundary between Albertson and Wiliston Park. On the east side of the avenue, several hundred yards of road provide access to the Williston Park pool property abutting the LIRR.</p><br>
<p>The road survives as a continuous county road, Vanderbilt Motor Parkway (CR 67), from Half Hollow Road in Dix Hills to its original end in Ronkonkoma, just a few blocks short of the lake. Signage along the way also identifies it variously as Vanderbilt Parkway and Motor Parkway. From Half Hollow Road, it goes northeast to NY 231 (Deer Park Avenue). It starts to parallel the Northern State Parkway and intersects with CR 4 (Commack Road) in Commack. It crosses the Sagtikos State Parkway (with northbound access northbound) and heads south to I-495 (the Long Island Expressway). The parkway heads eastward, paralleling the expressway (with access to and from the LIE) before ultimately crossing it and continuing southeast to NY 111 (Joshua&#39;s Path). It then heads north, crossing the LIE again at exit 57, and then curves to the east and crosses NY 454 (Veterans Memorial Highway). It heads east across Old Nichols and Terry roads ahead of one final northeastward turn to end at Rosevale Avenue (CR 93) in Ronkonkoma, close to the lake.</p><br>
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<p>Though not a limited-access highway since 1938, most of the road was recognizable into the 1970s, while new intersections continued to be cut through it. In the approximate middle of the road in and around Islandia, office construction and other commercial building has widened the road and made it appear a typical highway.</p><br>
<p>In 2008 the road celebrated its 100th anniversary. On October 30, 2011, a centennial event marked the 100th anniversary of the completion of the Lake Ronkonkoma section. Led by the winner of the 1909 and 1910 Vanderbilt Cup races, a parade of automobiles made prior to 1948 went from Dix Hills to Lake Ronkonkoma.</p><br>
<p>Sather Tower is a bell tower with clocks on its four faces on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley. It is more commonly known as The Campanile for its resemblance to the Campanile di San Marco in Venice. It is a recognizable symbol of the university.</p><br>
<p>Given by Jane K. Sather in memory of her husband, banker Peder Sather, it is the second-tallest bell-and-clock-tower in the world.</p><br>
<p>Its current 61-bell carillon, built around a nucleus of 12 bells also given by Jane Sather, can be heard for many miles and supports an extensive program of education in campanology.</p><br>
<p>Sather Tower also houses many of the Department of Integrative Biology&#39;s fossils (mainly from the La Brea Tar Pits) because its cool, dry interior is suited for their preservation.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>At 307 ft tall, it is the second-tallest free-standing bell-and-clock-tower in the world. It includes seven principal floors and an eighth-floor observation deck 200 ft above the base.</p><br>
<p>Designed by John Galen Howard, founder of the Department of Architecture at the university, Sather Tower was completed in 1915 and opened to the public in 1916. It marked a secondary axis in Howard&#39;s original Beaux-Arts campus plan and has been a major point of orientation in almost every campus master plan since.</p><br>
<p>Sather Tower houses a full concert carillon, enlarged from the original 12-bell chime installed in October 1917 to 48 bells in 1979 and the current 61 bells in 1983.</p><br>
<p>During the Fall and Spring semesters, the carillon is performed for ten minutes at 7:50 a.m., noon, and 6:00 p.m. during weekdays, from 12:00–12:15 p.m. and 6:00–6:10 p.m. on Saturdays, and from 2:00–2:45 p.m. on Sundays and intermittently at other times of the year. The bells also toll the hour 7 days a week between the hours of 8 a.m. and 10 p.m. At noon on the last day of instruction each semester, "They&#39;re Hanging Danny Deever in the Morning" is played. (The song employs only the original set of bells installed in 1917.) Following that, the carillon is silent until the end of finals.</p><br>
<p>A gift by Evelyn and Jerry Chambers in 1983 endowed the position of University Carillonist as well as practice rooms, practice keyboards, a campanology library, and international Carillon Festivals every five years from the anniversary of the Class of 1928. Private and group lessons are offered in carillon through the Department of Music, subject to auditions and with Music majors receiving priority. Students work on one of Sather Tower&#39;s two practice keyboards until they are ready to perform on the carillon itself.</p><br>
<p>An elevator takes visitors 200 feet (61 m) up to an observation deck with sweeping views of the campus, the surrounding hills, San Francisco, and the Golden Gate. Admission is free for UC Berkeley students, staff, and faculty, four dollars for seniors, Cal Alumni Association members, and persons age 17 and under, and five dollars for everyone else.</p><br>
<p>The trumpets of the California Marching Band every year play Cal spirit songs during Big Game week from the top of the tower. Known as the Campanile Concert, the music can be heard throughout the campus and Berkeley, and in some cases, all the way to Oakland.</p><br>
<p>The surrounding promenade features a grid of pollarded London Plane trees, frequently enjoyed for the sport of slacklining.</p><br>
<p>On April 16, 1959, a 67-year-old retired attorney jumped to his death, prompting a daily patrol to guard the platform. On January 4, 1961, a 19-year-old undergraduate student committed suicide. Following this second suicide, the university installed glass panes to enclose the viewing platform. These panes were removed in 1979 due to complaints that the panes were muffling the sound of the expanded carillon. In 1981, metal bars were installed. Nevertheless, in 1982, an undergraduate student managed to scale the newly installed bars but was talked down from the ledge.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, a pair of peregrine falcons began nesting on top of Sather Tower. They were followed by webcams and the Cal Falcons social media project.</p><br>
<h2>Carillon and its history</h2><br>
<p>The Berkeley Carillon originated as a twelve bell chime, cast in 1915 by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough, England. The original bells were a gift of Jane K. Sather, who also gave the university the Sather Tower (in which the bells were housed), Sather Gate (named for her husband the Norwegian-born banker Peder Sather), and endowed chairs in History and Classics. The original bells were installed in 1917 and played for the first time on November 3, 1917, to mark California&#39;s Big Game against Washington. The delay between the founding and the installation of the bells was caused by World War I, as well as the US Customs Service in San Francisco.</p><br>
<p>The original bells all bear the inscription "Gift of Jane K. Sather 1914," acknowledging the benefactress for whom the Tower is named. The largest of the original bells bears an inscription by Isaac Flagg, Professor of Greek, emeritus, "We ring, we chime, we toll, / Lend ye the silent part / Some answer in the heart, / Some echo in the soul." The current bells range from small 19 pound bells to the 10,500 pound "Great Bear Bell," which tolls on the hour and features bas-relief carvings of bears as well as the constellation Ursa Major.</p><br>
<p>It was soon discovered that these twelve bells (one octave) were insufficient to play many popular tunes, including the national anthem (which requires a range of a twelfth, and thus a bare minimum of twenty bells for chromaticity throughout the range). During the following decades there were a number of discussions about enlarging the instrument, but nothing came of this need.</p><br>
<p>A thirteenth bell was installed along with a clock in 1926 to strike the hours. This clock and bell had originally been installed in 1899 in Bacon Hall and were named for William Ashburner, a university regent.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, the Class of 1928 decided, as a fiftieth anniversary gift to the university, to add some bells. They began a campaign among their members, hoping to raise around $45,000 for a few new bells. In several days they managed to raise over $150,000 and decided at that point to enlarge the chime to a full carillon of forty-eight bells. Bids were sought, and the Fonderie Paccard of Annecy, France, was awarded the contract. The new Class of 1928 Carillon, which incorporated the original twelve bells, was installed and inaugurated in 1979. An article about the new instrument in The Guild of Carillonneurs in North America&#39;s publication The Bulletin ended by suggesting that perhaps another class might at some future date consider adding additional bells and making this concert carillon into a grand carillon.</p><br>
<p>In 1983, Jerry Chambers, a wealthy member of the class of 1928, and his wife Evelyn (class of 1932 and honorary member of the class of 1928), along with the class of 1928, gave a handsome endowment for the carillon. These funds were used to enlarge the instrument to a fully chromatic, five-octave instrument beginning with G2, renovation of two floors of Sather Tower for two practice keyboards, a campanology collection, and a studio for the University Carillonist. In addition, the Chambers Carillon funds, which is the sole source of support for the carillon program at Berkeley, endowed a full-time position for the University Carillonist (one of only five full-time positions in North America), and a carillon festival to be held every five years honoring the Class of 1928, counting from that year.</p><br>
<p>As of 2008, the carillon program is one of the most active in the world. It offers an instructional program which attracts about thirty students each semester, a performance program of seventeen ten-minute recitals and one forty-five-minute recital each week. There is additionally a professional staff of eight artist performers, and a part-time maintenance person. The carillon program remains fully funded by the generous endowment of Jerry and Evelyn Chambers.</p><br>
<p>Hull House was a settlement house in Chicago, Illinois, that was co-founded in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. Located on the Near West Side of Chicago, Hull House, named after the original house&#39;s first owner Charles Jerald Hull, opened to serve recently arrived European immigrants. By 1911, Hull House had expanded to 13 buildings. In 1912, the Hull House complex was completed with the addition of a summer camp, the Bowen Country Club. With its innovative social, educational, and artistic programs, Hull House became the standard bearer for the movement; by 1920, it grew to approximately 500 settlement houses nationally.</p><br>
<p>The Hull mansion and several subsequent acquisitions were continuously renovated to accommodate the changing demands of the association. In the mid-1960s, most of the Hull House buildings were demolished for the construction of the University of Illinois Chicago. The original building and one additional building (which has been moved 200 yd) survive today. On June 23, 1965, it was designated as a USA National Historic Landmark. On October 15, 1966, the day that the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 was enacted, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. On June 12, 1974, the surviving Hull mansion was designated as a Chicago Landmark.</p><br>
<p>Hull mansion was one of the first four structures to be listed on both the Chicago Registered Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places list (along with Chicago Pile-1, Robie House & Lorado Taft Midway Studios). After The Hull House Association moved from the original buildings complex in the 1960s, it continued to provide social services in multiple locations throughout Chicago. It finally ceased operations in January 2012. The Hull mansion and a related dining hall, the only remaining survivors on the Hull House complex, are now maintained as a history museum.</p><br>
<h2>Mission</h2><br>
<p>Addams followed the example of Toynbee Hall, which was founded in 1884 in the East End of London as a center for social reform. She described Toynbee Hall as "a community of university men" who, while living there, held their recreational clubs and social gatherings at the settlement house among the poor people and in the same style they would in their own circle. Addams and Starr established Hull House as a settlement house on September 18, 1889.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century a women&#39;s movement began to promote education and autonomy, and to break into traditionally male-dominated occupations for women. Organizations led by women, bonded by sisterhood, were formed for social reform, including settlement houses such as Hull House, situated in working class and poor neighborhoods. To develop "new roles for women, the first generation of New Women wove the traditional ways of their mothers into the heart of their brave new world. The social activists, often single, were led by educated New Women.</p><br>
<p>Hull House became, at its inception in 1889, "a community of university women" whose main purpose was to provide social and educational opportunities for working class people (many of them recent European immigrants) in the surrounding neighborhood. The "residents" (volunteers at Hull were given this title) held classes in literature, history, art, domestic activities (such as sewing), and many other subjects. Prominent scholars and social reformers such as John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, Max Weber, and W.E.B. Du Bois lectured at Hull House. In addition, Hull House held concerts that were free to everyone, offered free lectures on current issues, and operated clubs for both children and adults.</p><br>
<p>In 1892, Addams published her thoughts on what has been described as "the three R&#39;s" of the settlement house movement: residence, research, and reform. These involved "close cooperation with the neighborhood people, scientific study of the causes of poverty and dependence, communication of these facts to the public, and persistent pressure for reform..." Hull House conducted careful studies of the Near West Side, Chicago community, which became known as "The Hull House Neighborhood". These studies enabled the Hull House residents to confront the establishment, eventually partnering with them in the design and implementation of programs intended to enhance and improve the opportunities for success by the largely immigrant population.</p><br>
<p>According to Christie and Gauvreau (2001), while the Christian settlement houses sought to Christianize, Jane Addams, "had come to epitomize the force of secular humanism." Her image was, however, "reinvented" by the Christian churches. According to the Jane Addams Hull-House Museum, "Some social settlements were linked to religious institutions. Others, like Hull-House, were secular."</p><br>
<p>In 1895, the Hull-House Association released "Hull-House Maps and Papers." This publication consisted of essays authored by Hull-House residents and collaborators, overseen by Jane Addams. Alongside the essays, the book featured two maps illustrating the spatial distribution of immigrants from eighteen different nationalities residing within a one-third square mile radius around Hull-House. "The book was notable for its impact on the University of Chicago Sociology Department... Development of mapping as a statistical technique to reveal social group patterns became a major contribution of the Chicago School."</p><br>
<p>Settlement houses were established on the principles of Christian Socialism and the Social Gospel, which held the belief that the application of social sciences could address the challenges faced by urban residents in industrialized societies. Jane strongly asserted that the primary beneficiaries of the efforts at the settlement house were the residents themselves, rather than the local community. Nevertheless, Jane recognized that to effectively tackle these issues, it was essential to comprehend them thoroughly. Consequently, she mobilized teams to investigate social problems in the vicinity of Hull-House.</p><br>
<p>Hassencahl asserts that Hull-House evolved into a globally significant hub of intellectual activity, attracting leaders from various fields to engage in teaching, studying, and research. Deegan further elaborates that for women sociologists, Hull-House held a similar significance as the University of Chicago did for their male counterparts, serving as a central institution for research and social discourse. Alongside disseminating their discoveries, the insights derived from these inquiries played a crucial role in advocating for legislative reforms aimed at improving the conditions of immigrants and the impoverished.</p><br>
<p>Jane didnt intend to become a sociologist. In the preface of Hull-House Maps and Papers, she mentioned that the residents of the settlement house typically didnt engage in sociological inquiries, which she distinguished from investigations into labor abuses or factory conditions. She expressed her opposition to viewing the neighborhood as a laboratory, emphasizing that Hull-House aimed to assist the neighbors rather than study them. However, she ended up becoming a sociologist. Faderman describes Jane as "probably the first to take the work of female social scientists seriously." She was one of the founding members of the American Sociological Association, established in 1905. Additionally, she lectured on sociology at both the University of Chicago Extension and the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy.</p><br>
<p>Janes perspective aside, Hull-House represented a form of experimentation. Fortunately, it was replicable. By 1900, nearly 100 settlement houses akin to Hull-House had emerged across the United States. Moreover, Jane spurred a shift in the objectives of existing groups. Womens clubs, initially established by affluent women for cultural enrichment, joined forces to establish the Federation of Women&#39;s Clubs, directing their efforts towards civic endeavors such as eradicating child labor, establishing public libraries, and reforming tenements.</p><br>
<p>During that era, a familiar dichotomy emerged, resonating with contemporary readers. Male members of the University of Chicago Sociology Department tended to maintain a distance from their subjects. They operated from their offices within the university, using coordination for their studies. Women sociologists were often viewed by their male counterparts as mere data collectors. Conversely, women sociologists perceived sociology as a tool. While men regarded the data they gathered and the insights they derived as the ultimate goal, women viewed them as indicators of issues needing resolution. Their envisioned role was that of problem solvers.</p><br>
<p>Post-World War II, there arose a trend to quantify and "scientify" all aspects of what are now recognized as the social sciences. Consequently, sociology was embraced by business and science, with male faculty assuming predominant roles. By 1920, at the University of Chicago, all female professors were transferred from the Sociology Department to the Department of Social Services.</p><br>
<h2>Hull House neighborhood</h2><br>
<p>One of the first newspaper articles ever written about Hull House quotes the following invitation sent to the residents of the Hull House neighborhood. It begins with: "Mio Carissimo Amico"...and is signed, Le Signorine, Jane Addams and Ellen Starr. That invitation to the community, written during the first year of Hull House&#39;s existence, suggests that the inner core of what Addams labeled "The Hull House Neighborhood" was overwhelmingly Italian at that time. "10,000 Italians lived between the river and Halsted Street."</p><br>
<p>By all accounts, the greater Hull House neighborhood (Chicago&#39;s Near West Side) was a mix of various ethnic groups that had immigrated to Chicago. There was no discrimination of race, language, creed, or tradition for those who entered the doors of the Hull House. Every person was treated with respect. The Bethlehem-Howard Neighborhood Center records substantiate that, "Germans and Jews resided south of that inner core (south of twelfth street)...The Greek delta formed by Harrison, Halsted and Blue Island Streets served as a buffer to the Irish residing to the south and the Canadian–French to the northwest. From the river on the east end, on out to the western ends of what came to be known as "Little Italy", from Roosevelt Road on the south to the Harrison Street delta on the north, became the port-of-call for Italians who continued to immigrate to Chicago from the shores of southern Italy until a quota system was implemented in 1924 for most Southern Europeans.</p><br>
<p>The Greektown and Maxwell Street residents, along with the remnants of other immigrant groups living on the outer fringes of the Hull House Neighborhood, disappeared long before the physical demise of Hull House. The exodus of most ethnic groups began shortly after the turn of the twentieth century. Their businesses, e.g. Greektown and Maxwell Street, however, remained. Italian Americans were the only immigrant group that endured as a vibrant on-going community. That community came to be known as "Little Italy". Taylor Streets Little Italy, the inner core of Addams "Hull House Neighborhood", remained as the laboratory upon which the social and philanthropic groups of Hull House elitists had tested their theories and formulated their challenges to the establishment.</p><br>
<p>The synergy between Taylor Streets Little Italy and the Hull House complex; i.e., the settlement house and its summer camp, the Bowen Country Club, is well documented. Dr. Alice Hamilton, an early member of that elite Hull House hierarchy, wrote in her autobiography, "Those Italian women knew what a baby needed, far better than my Ann Arbor professors did." The ancillary literature between, among and about members of Hull Houses inner sanctum of sociologists and philanthropists is littered with such comments, reinforcing the relationship that existed between Taylor Street&#39;s Little Italy and Hull House. A review of the ethnic composition of those who registered for and utilized the services provided by the Hull House complex, during its 74 years as a tenant of the near-west side, suggests an ethnic bias. Of the 257 known WWII veterans who were alumni of the Bowen Country Club, "virtually all had a vowel at the end of their names...denoting their Italian heritage."</p><br>
<p>A historic picture, "Meet the Hull House Kids," was taken on a summer day in 1924 by Wallace K. Kirkland Sr., Hull House Director. He later became a top photographer with Life. The twenty Hull House Kids were erroneously described as young boys, of Irish ancestry, posing in the Dante School yard on Forquer Street (now Arthington Street). It circulated the world as a "poster child" of sorts for the Hull House social experiment. On April 5, 1987, over a half century later, the Chicago Sun-Times refuted the contention that the Hull House Boys were of Irish ancestry. In doing so, the Sun-Times article listed the names of each of the young boys. All twenty boys were first-generation Italian-Americans, all with vowels at the end of their names. "They grew up to be lawyers and mechanics, sewer workers and dump truck drivers, a candy shop owner, a boxer and a mob boss."</p><br>
<p>Because of the immigrants&#39; loneliness for their homeland, Addams started hosting ethnic evenings at Hull House. This would include ethnic food, dancing, music, and maybe a short lecture on a topic of interest. Some of the themed evenings were Italian, Greek, German, Polish, etc. Ellen Gates Starr described one Italian evening as having the room packed full with people. One of the ladies who attended "recited a patriotic poem with great spirit" and everyone was moved by it.</p><br>
<h3>Accomplishments</h3><br>
<p>Throughout the first two decades, along with thousands of immigrants from the surrounding area, Hull House attracted many female residents who later became prominent and influential reformers at various levels. At the beginning, Addams and Starr volunteered as on-call doctors when the real doctors either didnt show up or werent available. They acted as midwives, saved babies from neglect, prepared the dead for burial, nursed the sick, and sheltered domestic violence victims. For example, one Italian bride had lost her wedding ring and in turn was beaten by her husband for a week. She sought shelter at the settlement and it was granted to her. Also, a baby born with a cleft palate was unwanted by his mother so he was kept at the Hull House for six weeks after an operation. In another case, a woman was about to give birth to an illegitimate baby, so none of the Irish matrons would touch it. Addams and Starr stepped in and delivered this helpless little one. Finally, a female Italian immigrant was so thrilled about fresh roses at one of the Hull House receptions that she insisted they had come from Italy. She had never seen anything as beautiful in America despite the fact that she lived within ten blocks of a florist shop. Her limited view of America came from the untidy street she lived on and the long struggle to adapt to American ways. The settlement was also gradually drawn into advocating for legislative reforms at the municipal, state and federal levels, addressing issues such as child labor, women&#39;s suffrage, healthcare reform and immigration policy. Some claim that the work of the Hull House marked the beginning of what we know today as "Social Welfare".</p><br>
<p>At the neighborhood level, Hull House established the citys first public playground, bathhouse, and public gymnasium (in 1893), pursued educational and political reform, and investigated housing, working, and sanitation issues. The playground opened on May Day in 1893, located on Polk Street. Families dressed in party attire and came to join the celebration that day. Addams had studied child behavior and painfully concluded that "children robbed of childhood were likely to become dull, sullen men and women working mindless jobs, or criminals for whom the adventure of crime became the only way to break out of the bleakness of their lives" Addams thinking regarding the importance of childhood play opportunities contributed to a national conversation about the need for playgrounds and a movement that started the Playground Association of America Also, one volunteer, Jenny Dow, started a kindergarten class for children left at the settlement while their mothers worked in the sweatshops. Within three weeks, Dow had 24 registered kindergartners and 70 on a waiting list. At the municipal level, their pursuit of legal reforms led to the first juvenile court in the United States, and their work influenced urban planning and the transition to a branch library system. At the state level Hull House influenced legislation on child labor laws, occupational safety and health provisions, compulsory education, immigrant rights, and pension laws. These experiences translated to success at the federal level, working with the settlement house network to champion national child labor laws, womens suffrage, a childrens bureau, unemployment compensation, workers&#39; compensation, and other elements of the Progressive agenda during the first two decades of the twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>Jane Addams and many other Hull House residents such as Florence Kelley and Julia Lathrop inspired and stimulated social reforms. Hull House residents generated action. What is less well known, is that Hull House also generated a unique philosophy often described as feminist pragmatism. Philosophy is generally associated with academia. Plato, is known for establishing the academy (387 BCE), which was a forerunner of universities. Men dominated this world of thought --philosophy. Hull House offered an alternative location where women could debate, reflect, ponder and make sense of urban life through the prism of feminine experience. According to Maurice Hamington Hull House was an incubator of ideas where feminist pragmatism was jump started. The Hull House philosophy, contrasted sharply with the approach of Plato. He used geometry and math as a spring board to a theory of Forms, which were "ideal, eternal, unchanging and pleasingly independence of earthly visible things. Addams, on the other hand, was not interested in abstract truth. She wanted her philosophic approach to incorporate the messy world of lived experience - with emphasis on the under explored world of women&#39;s experience. Rather than focusing on fixed individual characteristics (virtues), her social ethics engaged the individual in broader society and focused on a social responsibility and participatory democracy. In 1897, Alice Hamilton after graduating from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine joined Hull House and founded one of the first child welfare and outpatient pediatric clinic.</p><br>
<h3>Teachings</h3><br>
<p>Later, the settlement branched out and offered services to ameliorate some of the effects of poverty. A public dispensary provided nutritious food for the sick as well as a daycare center and public baths. Among the courses Hull House offered was a bookbinding course, which was timely — given the employment opportunities in the growing printing trade. Hull House was well known for its success in aiding American assimilation, especially with immigrant youth. Hull House became the center of the movement to promote hand workmanship as a moral regenerative force. The Hull-House Kilns program was directed by Myrtle Merritt French. Under the direction of Laura Dainty Pelham their theater group performed the Chicago premiers of several plays by John Galsworthy, Henrik Ibsen, and George Bernard Shaw, and was given credit for founding the American Little Theatre Movement. The success of Hull House led Paul Kellogg to refer to the group as the "Great Ladies of Halsted Street".</p><br>
<p>The objective of Hull House, as stated in its charter, was: "To provide a center for a higher civic and social life; to institute and maintain educational and philanthropic enterprises, and to investigate and improve the conditions in the industrial districts of Chicago."</p><br>
<h2>The building and museum</h2><br>
<p>Hull House was located in Chicago, Illinois, and took its name from the Italianate mansion built by real estate magnate Charles Jerald Hull (1820–1889) at 800 South Halsted Street in 1856. The building was located in what had once been a fashionable part of town, but by 1889, when Addams was searching for a location for her experiment, it had descended into squalor. This was partly due to the rapid and overwhelming influx of immigrants into the Near West Side neighborhood. Charles Hull granted his former home to his cousin Helen Culver, who in turn granted it to Addams on a 25-year rent-free lease. By 1907, Addams had acquired 13 buildings surrounding Hulls mansion. Between 1889 and 1935, Addams and Ellen Gates Starr continuously redeveloped the building. In 1912, the Bowen Country Club summer camp was added to complete the Hull House complex. The facility remained at the original location until it was purchased in 1963 by what was then called the University of Illinois-Circle Campus. The development of University of Illinois-Circle Campus required the demolition of most of the Hull House buildings and the 1967 restoration to the original building by Frazier, Raftery, Orr and Fairbank removed Addamss third floor addition. In addition to the mansion, of the dozen additional buildings only the craftsman style dining hall (built in 1905 and designed by Pond & Pond) survives and it was moved 200 yd from its original site to be next to the mansion.</p><br>
<h3>The haunting of Hull House</h3><br>
<p>Addams noted that upon moving in, the building had a "half-skeptical reputation for a haunted attic." Over the years, numerous stories of ghosts and hauntings have surrounded Hull House, making it a stop on many of the "ghosts in Chicago" tours. Charles Hull&#39;s wife had died in the house in 1860 and is sometimes thought to haunt it. Other candidates for resident ghosts include the many people who died there of natural causes in the 1870s when it was used as a home for the aged by the Little Sisters of the Poor.</p><br>
<p>In 1913, another Hull House ghost story began circulating. According to this legend, after a man claimed that he would rather have the Devil in his house than a picture of The Virgin Mary, his child was born with pointed ears, horns, scale-covered skin, and a tail. The mother was said to have taken the baby to Hull House, where Addams was said to have attempted to have it baptized and wound up locking it in the attic. While initially annoyed about the story, which had no basis in fact, Addams became fascinated by the effect the episode had on old women in the neighborhood and used the episode as a basis for her book The Long Road of Woman&#39;s Memory.</p><br>
<p>While a great many erroneous stories have circulated about the building, Addams is known to have spoken to several friends about one of the front bedrooms on the second floor being haunted – she and a friend once thought they saw a "woman in white" ghost there, and the same ghost was later seen by a group of girls when the room was used as a dressing room for the adjacent theater. Though Addams called it "haunted," she seems to have been more amused than frightened by it.</p><br>
<h2>Theater</h2><br>
<p>Addams felt that the community benefits from theater plays and thus established an amateur theater in the Hull House in 1899. "The neighborhood Greeks performed the classic plays of antiquity in their own language and the children of European immigrants produced Shakespeare" as well as others. Early one December, the Greeks performed Odysseus in Chicago. The auditorium was filled with a multi-ethnic crowd and packed too close for comfort. The audience was very eager and gave the performers "rapt attention." They watched neighbors and co-workers execute this primitive play, but it was very powerful, plausible, and personal. The actors seemed to pay "tribute to a noble ancestry" and plea for the respect of the audience. Indeed, they did gain this respect because it was said that not even trained college students could give the same play with as much zeal and patriotism. America&#39;s improvisational theatre scene has its roots in Hull House, as Viola Spolin, noted improvisational techniques instructor, taught classes and developed her techniques at Hull House. In 1963, when road tours of Broadway productions became common, the Hull House Theater in the Jane Addams Center at 3212 North Broadway fostered the development of Chicago Theater companies for the rest of the century. Founder Robert Sickinger created an environment to nourish young talent with professionalism.</p><br>
<h2>1930s to 2012</h2><br>
<p>Addams was head resident until her death in 1935. Hull House continued to serve the community surrounding the Halsted location until it was displaced by the urban branch campus of the University of Illinois in the 1960s. Until 2012, the social service center role was performed throughout the city at various locations under an umbrella organization, the Jane Addams Hull House Association. The original Hull House building itself is a museum, part of the College of Architecture and the Arts at the University of Illinois Chicago, and is open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Jane Addams Hull House Association was one of Chicago&#39;s largest nonprofit social welfare organizations. Its mission was to improve social conditions for underserved people and communities by providing creative, innovative programs and by advocating for related public policy reforms. The Association had more than 50 programs at over 40 sites throughout Chicago and served approximately 60,000 individuals, families, and community members every year.</p><br>
<p>The Jane Addams Hull-House Museum is part of the College of Architecture and the Arts at the University of Illinois Chicago and serves as a memorial to Addams and other resident social reformers, whose work influenced the lives of their immigrant neighbors, as well as national and international public policy. The museum and its programs connect the work of Hull House residents to important contemporary social issues. The Museum&#39;s collection includes over 1,100 artifacts related to Hull House history and over 100 oral interviews conducted with people who have shared their stories about Hull House and the surrounding neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>Hull House Association closure</h3><br>
<p>Because of its heavy reliance on public support—as much as 85 percent of its revenue came from such sources—Hull House Association had essentially become an arm of government, unlike anything Ms. Addams might recognize today. When Clarence Wood, then the head of Chicagos Human Relations Commission, took over in 2000, he promised to move toward more private fundraising. But that effort appears to have failed to bring in more than a few million dollars in any given year, accounting for less than 10 percent of the agencys funding in most of the last decade, according to financial statements filed with the IRS and the Illinois attorney general&#39;s office.</p><br>
<p>On January 19, 2012, it was announced that Jane Addams Hull House Association would close in the spring of 2012 and file for bankruptcy due to financial difficulties, after almost 122 years. On Friday, January 27, 2012, Hull House closed unexpectedly and all employees received their final paychecks. Employees learned at time of closing that they would not receive severance pay or earned vacation pay or healthcare coverage. Union officials said that the agency closed while owing employees more than $27,000 in unpaid expense reimbursement claims. The University of Illinois Chicago&#39;s Jane Addams Hull-House Museum (unaffiliated with the agency), however, remains open.</p><br>
<h2>Workers and residents</h2><br>
<p>Founders and workers, sorted by surname</p><br>
<p>Edith Abbott, resident social worker</p><br>
<p>Grace Abbott, resident social worker</p><br>
<p>Jane Addams, cofounder with Ellen Gates Starr</p><br>
<p>Ethel Percy Andrus, volunteer</p><br>
<p>Enella Benedict, founder and director for the Art School</p><br>
<p>Neva Boyd, founded the Recreational Training School</p><br>
<p>Sophonisba Breckinridge, social scientist</p><br>
<p>Charlotte E. Carr, head resident 1937-1942</p><br>
<p>Cornelia De Bey, worker</p><br>
<p>Dorothy Detzer, social, peace, relief and juvenille activist</p><br>
<p>Emily Edwards (de Cantabrana), art teacher</p><br>
<p>Julia I. Felsenthal, social worker</p><br>
<p>Myrtle Merritt French, art teacher</p><br>
<p>Alice Hamilton, artist, worker, and resident</p><br>
<p>Florence Kelley, established a Bureau of Women&#39;s Labor there</p><br>
<p>Julia Lathrop, children&#39;s rights activist and civil service reformer</p><br>
<p>Dorothy Loeb, artist, teacher, and resident</p><br>
<p>Mary McDowell, teacher and social reformer</p><br>
<p>Ernest Carroll Moore, teacher, late founder and first provost of University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)</p><br>
<p>Willard Motley, a founder of Hull House Magazine</p><br>
<p>Mary Kenney O&#39;Sullivan, trade union activist, resident</p><br>
<p>Frances Perkins, labor rights advocate, later Secretary of Labor</p><br>
<p>Adena Miller Rich, head resident 1935 to 1937</p><br>
<p>Pauline Gibling Schindler, taught piano</p><br>
<p>Charles Phineas Schwartz, legal counsel, trustee, and vice president</p><br>
<p>Eleanor Clarke Slagle, established a workroom for handicapped people, later founder of occupational therapy</p><br>
<p>Ida Mott Smith, aide to Jane Addams, and her husband Robert Morss Lovett were residents from 1921 to 1937</p><br>
<p>Viola Spolin, teacher, Recreational Training School</p><br>
<p>Ellen Gates Starr, cofounder with Jane Addams</p><br>
<p>Alzina Stevens, labor leader and social reformer</p><br>
<p>Anne Swainson, taught textiles from 1915 to 1919</p><br>
<p>Rachelle Yarros, opened the country&#39;s second birth control clinic, married Victor Yarros, both of whom were residents</p><br>
<p>Residents or non-resident clients</p><br>
<p>Henry Standing Bear, resident</p><br>
<p>Benny Goodman, joined the boys club band</p><br>
<p>Gerard Swope, resident who married resident Mary Hill, later worked for General Electric Company (1922–1939)</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery is a 478 acre cemetery in the western portion of Brooklyn, New York City. The cemetery is located between South Slope/Greenwood Heights, Park Slope, Windsor Terrace, Borough Park, Kensington, and Sunset Park, and lies several blocks southwest of Prospect Park. Its boundaries include, among other streets, 20th Street to the northeast, Fifth Avenue to the northwest, 36th and 37th Streets to the southwest, Fort Hamilton Parkway to the south, and McDonald Avenue to the east.</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery was founded in 1838 as a rural cemetery, in a time of rapid urbanization when churchyards in New York City were becoming overcrowded. Described as "Brooklyn&#39;s first public park by default long before Prospect Park was created", Green-Wood Cemetery was so popular that it inspired a competition to design Central Park in Manhattan, as well as Prospect Park nearby.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997 and was made a National Historic Landmark in 2006. In addition, the 25th Street gates, the Weir Greenhouse, and the Fort Hamilton Parkway Gate & Green-Wood Cemetery Chapel were separately designated as city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission at various times.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Green-Woods site is characterized by varied topography created by glacial moraines, particularly the Harbor Hill Moraine. Battle Hill, also known as Gowans Heights, the highest point in Brooklyn, is on cemetery grounds, rising approximately 216 ft above sea level. It was the site of an important action during the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776. A Revolutionary War monument by Frederick Ruckstull, Altar to Liberty: Minerva, was erected there in 1920. From this height, the bronze Minerva statue gazes towards the Statue of Liberty across New York Harbor.</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood was less inspired by Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, which at the time retained the primarily axial formality of Alexandre Théodore Brongniarts original design, than by Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where a cemetery in a naturalistic park-like landscape in the English manner was first established. It has been called "Brooklyns first public park by default long before Prospect Park was created." The architecture critic Paul Goldberger was quoted in The New York Times in 1977, saying, "it is the ambition of the New Yorker to live upon the Fifth Avenue, to take his airings in the Park, and to sleep with his fathers in Green-wood".</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery contains 600,000 graves and 7,000 trees spread out over 478 acre. Though at one point there were numerous gravediggers at Green-Wood, there were just a few gravediggers due to a decrease in the number of burials, as well as the limited amount of space for new burials. Because of this shortage of space, several family members may be buried atop each other in some plots.</p><br>
<p>Several wooden shelters were also built, including one in a Gothic Revival style, one resembling an Italian villa, and another resembling a Swiss chalet. These shelters, designed by Richard Upjohn, had largely deteriorated by the late 20th century except for a ladies&#39; shelter. In 2008, Green-Wood started to acquire a collection of art pertaining to those buried in the cemetery.</p><br>
<h3>Landscaping and circulation</h3><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery contains numerous landscape features, which in turn are named after terms that evoke a naturalistic scene. These names include Camellia Path, Halcyon Lake, Oaken Bluff, Sylvan Cliff, and Vista Hill. David Bates Douglass, Green-Woods landscape architect, mostly kept the cemeterys natural landscaping intact. Much of Douglass&#39;s plan is still in place with its original plantings and curving-road systems. The original street names and original cast-iron perimeter fence have been retained, but many of the roads have been paved.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery has been expanded several times. Most of these regions have been landscaped to resemble the original plot, except the area near Fort Hamilton Avenue to the north, which is flatter because it was acquired last.</p><br>
<h3>Monuments</h3><br>
<p>There are several notable monuments and mausoleums in the cemetery, designed in several styles including the Classical, Egyptian, Gothic, and Romanesque. Some of monuments and mausoleums were designed by popular architects of the time, including Minard Lafever, Richard Upjohn, and Warren and Wetmore. In addition, many tombs contain ornate sculptural decoration. The National Register of Historic Places designation subdivides these monuments into four primary categories: those honoring events or professions; those with architectural significance; those whose graves contain people of historical significance; and "monuments of sculptural interest".</p><br>
<p>Among the first monuments was a statue of DeWitt Clinton, built in 1853.</p><br>
<p>Other monuments of note include the Pilots Monument and the Sea Captains Monument, each dedicated to a notable person in these respective professions. the statue was formerly in Bryant Park and Central Park but was removed from the latter in 2017. Some elaborate monuments honor notable figures, such as William Niblos Grand Gothic mausoleum, the Steinway & Sons familys Classical mausoleum, Abiel Abbot Lows tomb, and the Lispenard familys Norman-style mausoleum. Numerous other monuments to notable figures exist but are extremely simple in design, such as the tombs of Samuel Morse, William M. Tweed, Lola Montez, Henry Ward Beecher, and Currier and Ives. On the other hand, several monuments commemorate less well-known figures, including a Gothic memorial for 17-year-old Charlotte Canda, and a High Victorian pier designed by William or Edward Potter for their relatives.</p><br>
<h3>Gates</h3><br>
<p>The gates were designed by Richard Upjohn in Gothic Revival style. There are four gates in total. Two are city landmarks: the main gate at 25th Street to the northwest, which is closest to South Slope/Greenwood Heights, and Fort Hamilton Parkway to the south, which is in Kensington. Two additional gates exist. One of these, at 20th Street and Ninth Avenue, provides access from the northeast and is in Windsor Terrace. The other, at 34th Street and Fourth Avenue, provides access from the southwest and is located next to Sunset Park and the 36th Street station of the New York City Subway, serving the. These gates were developed from the 1840s to the 1860s. A fifth gate at Ninth Avenue and 37th Street no longer exists.</p><br>
<h4>25th Street gate</h4><br>
<p>The main entrance to the cemetery, a double-gate located at 25th Street and Fifth Avenue near its northwestern corner, was built in 1861–65, though the entrance itself opened in 1862. It is composed of Belleville, New Jersey brownstone. The sculptured groups on Nova Scotia limestone panels depicting biblical scenes of death and resurrection from the New Testament including Lazarus, The Widows Son, and Jesus Resurrection over the gateways are the work of sculptor John M. Moffitt. In between the two gateways is a clock tower in the Flamboyant style. The tower measures 106 ft tall. A cemetery office is to one side of the gate, while the chapel and reception room are on the opposite side. A descendant colony of monk parakeets that are believed to have escaped their containers while in transit now nests in the spires of the gate, as well as other areas in Brooklyn.</p><br>
<p>The New York Community Trust placed a Designated Landmarks of New York plaque on the gate in 1958, and the gate was designated an official New York City landmark in 1966.</p><br>
<h4>Fort Hamilton gate</h4><br>
<p>The Fort Hamilton gate is located at Fort Hamilton Parkway and Macieli Place. Similar to the 25th Street gate, it is made of a double gateway made of brownstone. It is also flanked by two structures, a visitors lounge and the gatekeepers residence. The gate was built in 1876 and completed the next year; it was designated as an official New York City landmark in 2016.</p><br>
<p>To the east of the entrance is the visitors lounge, a brownstone building. It is a -story structure with an entrance located inside a center bay on the west side of the building. The visitors lounge contains two side bays, each with a porch, as well as restrooms for men and women. The hip roof is made of gray slate with metal ornamentation along the ridge at the top. The roof slopes down toward the perimeter walls of the building, though each of the four sides of the roof is punctuated by dormers with small windows. The corner porches feature stone banisters, and contain four yellow sandstone bas-reliefs sculpted by Moffitt.</p><br>
<p>The west side of the entrance, also a brownstone structure, contains the gatekeepers residence, a -story structure that is similar in design to the visitors lounge. Only the center section is stories, while the two pavilions to the west and east are stories. The residence&#39;s main entrance is through the eastern pavilion, while there is another pavilion on the western facade. Both pavilions have hip roofs of gray slate, and the second floor contains dormers with windows that project from the hip roof. The central "tower" section contains entrances to both the north and south, as well as windows on the second, third, and attic floors that face north and south. The roof of the central tower contains a stone chimney.</p><br>
<h3>Chapel</h3><br>
<p>The Green-Wood Cemetery chapel is located near the 25th Street gate. Built in 1911–1913 by Warren and Wetmore, the chapel is located on the site of one of Green-Wood&#39;s original ponds. Though it is generally designed in the late Gothic style, its massing is in the Beaux-Arts style. It is made of limestone, and consists of multiple towers, including a central octagonal tower and four octagonal turrets, one at each corner. The three-story chapel contains a ground level, clerestory level, and the second story in the central tower. It was patterned after the Tom Tower at Christ Church, Oxford.</p><br>
<p>Plans for the Green-Wood chapel date to shortly after the chapel&#39;s establishment, when a "Chapel Hill" was set aside within the cemetery. Though Richard Upjohn submitted plans for such a chapel in 1855, Green-Wood initially voted against such a chapel. A new location was selected near Arbor Water in the first decade of the 20th century, and plans were solicited from three firms in 1909. After Warren and Wetmore were selected, work started in 1911, and the chapel was officially opened in June 1913. The chapel was made a city landmark in 2016.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Founding and construction</h3><br>
<p>Following the founding of Mount Auburn Cemetery in Massachusetts in 1831, the leaders of New York City and the then-independent city of Brooklyn began discussing locations for a cemetery of their own. At the time, over 10,000 people were being buried per year in the two cities. The cemetery was the idea of Henry Evelyn Pierrepont, a Brooklyn social leader. David Bates Douglass, Green-Wood&#39;s landscape architect, started working on the layout in 1838. He opposed an early suggestion to call the cemetery a necropolis, as he thought the landscaped site should also attract the living.</p><br>
<p>On April 11, 1839, a modification to that act was enacted, changing the corporation to a nonprofit organization.</p><br>
<p>There were initially very few burials per year; by 1843, there had been 352 burials total, though the number of burials doubled just in the next year. Throughout the 1840s, several churches were allocated plots in Green-Wood Cemetery. These included the</p><br>
<p>Dutch Protestant Reformed, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Unitarian, and German Lutheran churches of Brooklyn. By the 1850s, various fauna were being introduced to the cemetery.</p><br>
<h3>Expansion and growing popularity</h3><br>
<h4>1840s to 1860s</h4><br>
<p>As early as the 1840s, the cemetery had 30,000 visitors per season during the spring and fall; the visitors took horse-drawn carriages or ferries to the cemetery. To accommodate those who came to the cemetery, a ferry service to the cemetery was established in 1846. The burial ground was expanded multiple times. Originally 175 acres were enclosed, stretching between 21st and 37th Streets from 5th to 9th Avenue. The first additional acquisition in 1847 was for 65 acre at the southwest corner of the cemetery, adjacent to the contemporary border of the city of Brooklyn. Another 85 acre to the east was acquired in 1852 through the annexation of land in the then-separate village of Flatbush. Finally, in 1858 another 23 acre was acquired at the southeastern corner of the cemetery grounds. A plot at the southeast corner of the cemetery was purchased in 1863, allowing the commissioners to straighten out that border.</p><br>
<p>This era was also associated with the construction of other structures. A receiving tomb was installed in 1853, and around the same time, the ponds were cleaned and landscaped. In addition, several gates to the cemetery were added. The main gate at 5th Avenue and 25th Street was built in 1861–65, followed by other entrances near the cemeterys service yard; at 9th Avenue and 20th Street; and at 9th Avenue and 37th Street (later removed). In addition, a gatekeepers house was installed at the original southern entrance in 1848, the "Thirty Vaults" catacombs in 1854, and a well house in 1855. Furthermore, the paths were paved in the 1860s to allow for easier transport within the cemetery. Several additional ponds were carved out through the 1870s, including Border Water, Dell Water, Crescent Water, Dale Water, and Meadow Water.</p><br>
<p>At first, 14 by lots were being sold for $100 apiece, and it soon became a frequent place for burials, with 7,000 annual burials and 100,000 graves by the 1860s. Green-Wood became more popular after former governor DeWitt Clinton was disinterred from a cemetery in Albany, the New York state capital, and moved to Green-Wood, where a monument to him was erected in 1853. By the early 1860s it was drawing annual crowds second in size only to Niagara Falls. Numerous guides to the cemetery were published for these visitors, including an illustrated guidebook and a directory in the late 1840s, as well as a cemetery history and a handbook in the late 1860s.</p><br>
<h4>1870s to 1890s</h4><br>
<p>By the 1860s, Prospect Park was being constructed and public streetcar and elevated lines were established across Brooklyn. In particular, the opening of the Fifth Avenue Elevated station at 25th Street, near the main entrance, proved to be a benefit to lot owners in Green-Wood Cemetery. As a result, in 1876, Green-Wood built the Fort Hamilton gate to accommodate the anticipated extra crowds. By the end of the 19th century, several florists, greenhouses, and monument sellers had opened shops near each of the gates. One such structure was the Weir Greenhouse, located across from the 25th Street entrance; that building is now both a National Register of Historic Places listing and a city landmark.</p><br>
<p>Improvements also continued throughout the late 19th century. In 1871, Border Water was partially eliminated to make extra burial space, and in 1874, the cemetery was slightly expanded to 440 acre. Also, an underground drainage system, extra roads, and a permanent stone fence were built through the late 1870s. The cemetery was enlarged again in 1884 to 474 acre via the acquisition of land on the northern border. To prevent the view being marred by the construction of tenements, Green-Wood also purchased lots on the southwest corner. By the 1890s, a reservoir was added atop Mt. Washington, the highest point in the cemetery, while two ponds had been removed. At the turn of the century, an old engine house, stables, and several enclosures were being removed, while waiting rooms and restrooms were added at the southern entrance. During this period, thousands of trees were planted, and roads continued to be graded.</p><br>
<p>Most famous New Yorkers who died during the second half of the 19th century were buried at Green-Wood. The monument was not dedicated until 1876. On December 5, 1876, the Brooklyn Theater Fire claimed the lives of at least 278 individuals, with some accounts reporting over 300 dead. Out of that total, 103 unidentified victims were interred in a common grave at Green-Wood Cemetery. An obelisk near the main entrance marks the burial site.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Green-Wood has remained non-sectarian, but was generally considered a Christian burial place for white Anglo-Saxon Protestants of good repute. One early regulation was that no one executed for a crime, or even dying in jail, could be buried there. However, the family of infamous political leader "Boss" Tweed managed to circumvent this rule even though he died in the Ludlow Street Jail. The cemetery&#39;s chapel was completed in 1913 by Warren and Wetmore, on the site of Arbor Water. By 1916, the cemetery had 325,000 burials.</p><br>
<p>Modifications to Green-Wood&#39;s landscape continued through the 20th century. In 1915, the entrance at 20th Street was realigned to connect with 9th Avenue/Prospect Park West (the entrance there being completed in 1926), and another pond was drained. The landscape was in decline by the late 1910s, but this was followed shortly after by dead-tree removals in the 1920s and a five-year road repaving project began in 1924. Road reconstructions continued through the mid-1930s and demolition of enclosures continued. Notably, the clock tower at the 34th Street entrance was demolished in 1941, and iron fences were removed during World War II for the war effort. The old main entrance was demolished in 1951, and four years later, the first new crematorium in New York City in a half-century was built at Green-Wood, with a columbarium. By the end of the 1950s, another reservoir had been filled for new lots.</p><br>
<p>More than 1,000 enclosures were removed from 1950 to 1961, the same year that work on a new crematorium began. The columbarium was expanded from 1975 to 1977. However, through the 1970s, vandalism was common at Green-Wood Cemetery. The cemetery was also affected by labor strikes among the gravediggers in 1966, 1973, and 1982. The cemetery also continued to add new structures: the Garden Mausoleum and Community Mausoleum were finished in the late 1980s, and the Hillside Mausoleum was expanded. In addition, in 1994, the north gate was restored and new offices were built. This was followed by the restoration of the chapel in the late 1990s, and it reopened in 2000 after having been closed for four decades.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>In 1999, The Green-Wood Historic Fund, a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit institution, was created to continue preservation, beautification, educational programs and community outreach as the current "working cemetery" evolves into a Brooklyn cultural institution. The Historic Funds Civil War Project, an effort to identify and remember Civil War veterans buried at Green-Wood, was created following the rededication ceremony of the Civil War Soldiers Monument. These early graves had either sunk into the soil, been damaged, or had their markers erased before the monument was restored between 2000 and 2002. Further, construction of the last phase of the Hillside Mausoleum began in 2001, and the same year 50 victims of the September 11 attacks were buried there. By 2009, there was little space for new interments at Green-Wood Cemetery. In December 2010, a memorial was unveiled for the 134 victims of the 1960 New York mid-air collision; the cemetery contains the common grave in which were placed the remains of unidentified victims.</p><br>
<p>On October 13, 2012, another Angel of Music was installed to replace the one vandalized in 1959, this one made by sculptors Giancarlo Biagi and Jill Burkee, was unveiled to memorialize Louis Moreau Gottschalk. Two weeks later, Hurricane Sandy toppled or damaged at least 292 of the mature trees, 210 gravestones, and 2 mausoleums in the cemetery. The damage was estimated at $500,000. In December 2012 the statue The Triumph of Civic Virtue by Frederick MacMonnies was moved to Green-Wood. In August 2013, in partnership with the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati, signage in the Battle Hill area of the cemetery was updated to reflect new research on Battle Hill&#39;s importance in the Battle of Brooklyn.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery&#39;s interments include a considerable number of notable people, including painter George Catlin, designer Louis Comfort Tiffany, painter Asher B. Durand, printmakers Nathaniel Currier and James Ives, and architects James Renwick Jr. and Richard Upjohn are among the artists interred in the cemetery. In addition, public leaders William M. Tweed, Henry Ward Beecher, Horace Greeley, William Oland Bourne, and DeWitt Clinton; businessmen Edward R. Squibb, William Colgate, Frederick August Otto Schwarz, and Charles Pfizer; and railroad promoter Thomas C. Durant are buried in the cemetery. Among the burials at the cemetery are six British Commonwealth service personnel whose graves are registered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, three from World War I and three from World War II. There are other notable burials like the economist Henry George; Charles Ebbets; artist Jean-Michel Basquiat, conductor Leonard Bernstein</p><br>
<h2>Landmark designations</h2><br>
<p>The gates of the cemetery were designated a New York City landmark in 1966, and the Weir Greenhouse, used as a visitors center, was designated as such in 1982. and was granted National Historic Landmark status in 2006 by the USA Department of the Interior. The Fort Hamilton Parkway Gate and the cemeterys chapel were designated as official New York City landmarks in 2016.</p><br>
<p>Green-Wood Cemetery (26635p).jpgYoshino cherry tree by a line of graves</p><br>
<p>The National Mall is a landscaped park near the downtown area of Washington, D.C., the capital city of the United States. It contains and borders a number of museums of the Smithsonian Institution, art galleries, cultural institutions, and various memorials, sculptures, and statues. It is administered by the National Park Service  of the United States Department of the Interior as part of the National Mall and Memorial Parks unit of the National Park System. The park receives approximately 24 million visitors each year. Designed by Pierre L&#39;Enfant, the "Grand Avenue" or Mall was to be a democratic and egalitarian space—unlike palace gardens, such as those at Versailles in France, that were paid for by the people but reserved for the use of a privileged few.</p><br>
<p>The core area of the National Mall extends between the United States Capitol grounds to the east and the Washington Monument to the west and is lined to the north and south by several museums and federal office buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks, museums, and other features</h2><br>
<h3>Within the National Mall proper</h3><br>
<p>The National Mall proper contains the following landmarks, museums and other features (including opening year):</p><br>
<p>Not marked on the above image:</p><br>
<p>Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Coordinates of the Smithsonian Carousel: 38&deg;53&prime;20.93&Prime;N latitude, 77&deg;01&prime;28.44&Prime;W longitude</p><br>
<p>With the exception of the National Gallery of Art, all of the museums on the National Mall proper are part of the Smithsonian Institution. The Smithsonian Gardens maintains a number of gardens and landscapes near its museums. These include:</p><br>
<p>Common Ground: Our American Garden (2017)</p><br>
<p>Enid A. Haupt Garden (1987)</p><br>
<p>Freer Gallery of Art Courtyard Garden (1923)</p><br>
<p>Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (1974)</p><br>
<p>Kathrine Dulin Folger Rose Garden (1998)</p><br>
<p>Mary Livingston Ripley Garden (1978)Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>National Air and Space Museum landscape (1976)</p><br>
<p>Native landscape at the National Museum of the American Indian (2004)</p><br>
<p>Pollinator Garden (1995)</p><br>
<p>Urban Bird Habitat (2020)</p><br>
<p>Victory Garden (2020)</p><br>
<h3>East of the National Mall proper</h3><br>
<p>Features east of the National Mall proper include:</p><br>
<p>United States Capitol and its grounds (no. 7 on image)</p><br>
<p>Union Square, containing:</p><br>
<p>Peace Monument (1878) (in traffic circle northeast of no. 8 in image)</p><br>
<p>United States Botanic Garden (1933) (no. 9 on image)</p><br>
<p>James A. Garfield Monument (1887) (in traffic circle northeast of no. 9 in image)</p><br>
<h3>West of the National Mall proper and in West Potomac Park</h3><br>
<p>Not included in the above map:</p><br>
<h2>Boundaries and dimensions</h2><br>
<h3>Dimensions</h3><br>
<p>Between the Capitol steps and the Lincoln Memorial, the Mall spans 1.9 miles (3.0 km).</p><br>
<p>Between the Capitol steps and the Washington Monument, the Mall spans 1.2 miles (1.8 km).</p><br>
<p>Between the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial and the Lincoln Memorial, the Mall covers 309.2 acres (125.13 ha).</p><br>
<p>Between Constitution Avenue NW and Independence Avenue SW at 7th Street, the width of the Mall is 1,586 ft.</p><br>
<p>Between Madison Drive NW and Jefferson Drive SW at 7th Street, the width of the Mall&#39;s open space is 656 ft.</p><br>
<p>Between the innermost rows of trees near 7th Street, the width of the Mall&#39;s vista is 300 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Boundaries</h3><br>
<p>In its 1981 National Register of Historic Places nomination form, the NPS defined the boundaries of the National Mall (proper) as Constitution and Pennsylvania Avenues on the north, 1st Street NW on the east, Independence and Maryland Avenues on the south, and 14th Street NW on the west, with the exception of the section of land bordered by Jefferson Drive on the north, Independence Avenue on the south, and by 12th and 14th Streets respectively on the east and west, which the USA Department of Agriculture administers and which contains the Jamie L. Whitten Building (USA Department of Agriculture Administration Building). The 2012–2016 National Park Service index describes the National Mall as being a landscaped park that extends from the Capitol to the Washington Monument, defined as a principal axis in the L&#39;Enfant Plan for the city of Washington.</p><br>
<p>However, a 2010 NPS plan for the Mall contains maps that show the Mall&#39;s general area to be larger. A document within the plan describes this area as "the grounds of the USA Capitol west to the Potomac River, and from the Thomas Jefferson Memorial north to Constitution Avenue". A map within the plan entitled "National Mall Areas" illustrates "The Mall" as being the green space bounded on the east by 3rd Street, on the west by 14th Street, on the north by Jefferson Drive, NW, and on the south by Madison Drive, SW. A Central Intelligence Agency map shows the Mall as occupying the space between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the 112th United States Congress enacted the Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 2012, which transferred to the Architect of the Capitol the NPS "property which is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest, on the east by First Street Northwest and First Street Southwest, on the south by Maryland Avenue Southwest, and on the west by Third Street Southwest and Third Street Northwest". This act removed Union Square (the area containing the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial and the Capitol Reflecting Pool) from NPS jurisdiction.</p><br>
<h2>Purposes</h2><br>
<p>The National Park Service states that the purposes of the National Mall are to:</p><br>
<p>Provide a monumental, dignified, and symbolic setting for the governmental structures, museums, and national memorials as first delineated by the L&#39;Enfant plan and further outlined in the McMillan plan.</p><br>
<p>Maintain and provide for the use of the National Mall with its public promenades as a completed work of civic art, a designed historic landscape providing extraordinary vistas to symbols of the nation.</p><br>
<p>Maintain National Mall commemorative works (memorials, monuments, statues, sites, gardens) that honor presidential legacies, distinguished public figures, ideas, events, and military and civilian sacrifices and contributions.</p><br>
<p>Forever retain the West Potomac Park section of the National Mall as a public park for the recreation and enjoyment of the people.</p><br>
<p>Maintain the National Mall in the heart of the nation&#39;s capital as a stage for national events and a preeminent national civic space for public gatherings because it is here that the constitutional rights of speech and peaceful assembly find their fullest expression.</p><br>
<p>Maintain the National Mall as an area free of commercial advertising while retaining the ability to recognize sponsors."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>L&#39;Enfant City Plan</h3><br>
<p>In his 1791 plan for the future city of Washington, D.C., Pierre (Peter) Charles L&#39;Enfant envisioned a garden-lined "grand avenue" approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) in length</p><br>
<p>and 400 ft wide, in an area that would lie between the Congress House (now the United States Capitol) and an equestrian statue of George Washington. The statue would be placed directly south of the Presidents House (now the White House) and directly west of the Congress House (see LEnfant Plan) on the site of the Washington Monument. The grand avenue was to be flanked by gardens and spacious accommodations for foreign ministers.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>LEnfant identified himself as "Peter Charles LEnfant" during most of his life, while residing in the United States. He wrote this name on his (Washington, D.C.) and on other legal documents. However, during the early 1900s, a French ambassador to the United States, Jean Jules Jusserand, popularized the use of LEnfants birth name, "Pierre Charles LEnfant". (See: Bowling, Kenneth R (2002). Peter Charles LEnfant: vision, honor, and male friendship in the early American Republic. George Washington University, Washington, D.C.) The National Park Service identifies LEnfant as and as on its website. The United States Code states in: "(a) In General.&mdash;The purposes of this chapter shall be carried out in the District of Columbia as nearly as may be practicable in harmony with the plan of Peter Charles LEnfant."</p><br>
<p>Mathew Carey&#39;s 1802 map is reported to be the first to name the area west of the United States Capitol as the "Mall".Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The name is derived from that of The Mall in London, which during the 1700s was a fashionable promenade near Buckingham Palace upon which the city&#39;s elite strolled.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The Washington City Canal, completed in 1815 in accordance with the LEnfant Plan, travelled along the former course of Tiber Creek to the Potomac River along B Street Northwest (NW) (now Constitution Avenue NW) and south along the base of a hill containing the Congress House, thus defining the northern and eastern boundaries of the Mall. Being shallow and often obstructed by silt, the canal served only a limited role and became an open sewer that poured sediment and waste into the Potomac Rivers flats and shipping channel. The portion of the canal that traveled near the Mall was covered over in 1871 for sanitary reasons.</p><br>
<p>Some consider a lockkeeper&#39;s house constructed in 1837 near the western end of the Washington City Canal for an eastward extension of the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal to be the oldest building still standing on the National Mall. The structure, which is located near the southwestern corner of 17th Street NW and Constitution Avenue NW, is west of the National Mall (proper).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Institution Building ("The Castle"), constructed from 1847 to 1855, is the oldest building now present on the National Mall (proper). The Washington Monument, whose construction began in 1848 and reached completion in 1888, stands near the planned site of its namesake&#39;s equestrian statue. The Jefferson Pier marks the planned site of the statue itself.</p><br>
<h3>Downing Plan: Mid-19th century</h3><br>
<p>During the early 1850s, architect and horticulturist Andrew Jackson Downing designed a landscape plan for the Mall.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Over the next half century, federal agencies developed several naturalistic parks within the Mall in accordance with Downing&#39;s plan. Two such areas were Henry Park and Seaton Park.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>During that period, the Mall was subdivided into several areas between B Street Northwest (NW) (now Constitution Avenue NW) and B Street Southwest (SW) (now Independence Avenue SW):</p><br>
<p>The Public Grounds between 2nd and 6th Streets NW and SW</p><br>
<p>The Armory Grounds between 6th and 7th Streets NW and SW</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Grounds between 7th and 12th Streets NW and SW</p><br>
<p>The Agricultural Grounds between 12th and 14th Streets NW and SW</p><br>
<p>The Monument Grounds between 14th and 17th Streets NW and SW</p><br>
<p>In 1856, the Armory (No. 27 on the 1893 map of the Mall) was built at the intersection of B Street SW and 6th Street SW on the Armory Grounds. In 1862, during the American Civil War, the building was converted to a military hospital known as Armory Square Hospital to house Union Army casualties. After the war ended, the Armory building became the home of the United States Fish Commission.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The United States Congress established the United States Department of Agriculture in 1862 during the Civil War. Designed by Adolf Cluss and Joseph von Kammerhueber, the United States Department of Agriculture Building (No. 25 on the map), was constructed in 1867–1868 north of B Street SW within a 35-acre site on the Mall.</p><br>
<p>After the Civil War ended, the Department of Agriculture started growing experimental crops and demonstration gardens on the Mall. These gardens extended from the department&#39;s building near the south side of the Mall to B Street NW (the northern boundary of the Mall). The building was razed in 1930. In addition, greenhouses belonging to the USA Botanical Garden (No. 16 on the map) appeared near the east end of the Mall between the Washington City Canal and the Capitol (later between 1st and 3rd Streets NW and SW).</p><br>
<p>Originating during the early 1800s as a collection of market stalls immediately north of the Washington City Canal and the Mall, the Center Market (No. 19 on the map), which Adolf Cluss also designed, opened in 1872 soon after the canal closed. Located on the north side of Constitution Avenue NW, the National Archives now occupies the Market&#39;s site.</p><br>
<p>During that period, railroad tracks crossed the Mall on 6th Street, west of the Capitol. Near the tracks, several structures were built over the years. The Baltimore and Potomac Railroad station (B on the map) rose in 1873 on the north side of the Mall at the southwest corner of 6th Street and B Street NW (now the site of the west building of the National Gallery of Art).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>In 1881, the Arts and Industries Building (No. 34 on the map), known originally as the National Museum Building, opened on the north side of B Street SW to the east of "The Castle". Designed in 1876 by Adolf Cluss and his associates, the building is the second oldest still standing on the National Mall (proper).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>In 1887, the Army Medical Museum and Library, which Adolf Cluss designed in 1885, opened on the Mall at northwest corner of B Street SW and 7th Street SW. The Smithsonian Institution&#39;s Hirshhorn Museum now occupies the site of the building, which was demolished in 1968.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, in order to clean up the Potomac Flats and to make the Potomac River more navigable, in 1882 Congress authorized the Army Corps of Engineers to dredge the river. The Corps used the sediment removed from the shipping channel to fill in the flats. The work started in 1882 and continued until 1911, creating the Tidal Basin and 628 new acres of land. Part of the new land, which became West Potomac Park, expanded the Mall southward and westward (see 1893 map above).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<h3>McMillan Plan: Early 20th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1902, the McMillan Commissions plan, which was partially inspired by the City Beautiful Movement and which purportedly extended Pierre LEnfants plan, called for a radical redesign of the Mall that would replace its greenhouses, gardens, trees, and commercial/industrial facilities with an open space. The plan differed from LEnfant&#39;s by replacing the 400 ft wide "grand avenue" with a 300 ft wide vista containing a long and broad expanse of grass.</p><br>
<p>Four rows of American elm trees (Ulmus americana) planted fifty feet apart between two paths or streets would line each side of the vista. Buildings housing cultural and educational institutions constructed in the Beaux-Arts style would line each outer path or street, on the opposite side of the path or street from the elms.</p><br>
<p>In subsequent years, the vision of the McMillan plan was generally followed with the planting of American elms and the layout of four boulevards down the Mall, two on either side of a wide lawn. In accordance with a plan that it completed in 1976, the NPS converted the two innermost boulevards (Washington Drive NW and Adams Drive SW) into gravel walking paths. The two outermost boulevards (Madison Drive NW and Jefferson Drive SW)) remain paved and open to vehicular traffic.</p><br>
<h3>Temporary war buildings</h3><br>
<p>During World Wars I and II, the federal government constructed a number of temporary buildings (tempos) on the Mall, disrupting the area&#39;s planned layout. Most of these buildings were in two clusters: one near the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool and the other on the National Mall (proper) in the vicinity of 4th through 7th Streets NW and SW.</p><br>
<h4>World War I</h4><br>
<p>The United States entered World War I in April 1917. By 1918, a row of tempos designated from north to south as Buildings A, B, and C had stretched across the Mall along the east side of the former railroad route on 6th Street. The smokestacks of the buildings&#39; centrally-located power plant were set apart to preserve the view of the Washington Monument from the Capitol building. Soon afterwards, the government constructed Buildings D, E and F to the east and west of the row.</p><br>
<p>Around 1921 (when the United States and Germany signed the USA–German Peace Treaty, thus formally ending the war between the two nations), the government demolished Buildings A and B. The remaining tempos held offices of several agencies belonging to the Agriculture, Commerce, Treasury and War Departments for a number of years after the war ended.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The government then slowly dismantled most of the tempos that had remained within the Mall (proper), removing the power plant and nearby buildings by 1936. Among those removed was Building C, which the government demolished between 1933 and 1936.</p><br>
<p>By 1937, the government had removed all of the World War I tempos that had been within the National Mall (proper) except for Building E, thus largely restoring the Malls central vista. However, another World War I tempo, which the government constructed south of the Mall in 1919 between 14th Street SW and the Tidal Basin as the Liberty Loan Building, remained standing in 2019 while housing the Treasury Departments Bureau of the Fiscal Service.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Coordinates of Bureau of the Fiscal Service Building (former Liberty Loan Building): 38&deg;53&prime;05.0&Prime;N latitude, 77&deg;01&prime;56.7&Prime;W longitudeMultiple sources:</p><br>
<p>In 1918, contractors for the United States Navy&#39;s Bureau of Yards and Docks constructed the Main Navy and Munitions Buildings along nearly a third of a mile of the south side of Constitution Avenue (then known as B Street), from 17th Street NW to 21st Street NW. Although the Navy intended the buildings to provide temporary quarters for the United States military during World War I, the reinforced concrete structures remained in place until 1970.</p><br>
<h4>World War II</h4><br>
<p>During World War II, the government constructed a larger set of temporary buildings on the Mall in the area of the former World War I tempos, along the south side of Constitution Avenue between 12th and 14th Streets NW, on the west side of the Washington Monument grounds, along the entire length of the south side of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool and between the Reflecting Pool and the Main Navy and Munition buildings on the Pools north side. Numbers identified new buildings built on the Monument grounds, while letters identified the remainder. The government also built dormitories, residence halls and facilities for dining and recreation south of the eastern half of the Mall and within the part of West Potomac Park that lay south of the Malls western half.</p><br>
<p>The government progressively demolished all of the World War II tempos beginning in 1964. After the government removed the Main Navy and Munitions buildings in 1970, much of their former sites became Constitution Gardens, which was dedicated in 1976.</p><br>
<h3>Later history</h3><br>
<p>The planting of American elm trees (Ulmus americana) on the National Mall following the McMillan Plan started in the 1930s between 3rd and 14th Streets at the same time that Dutch Elm Disease (DED) began to appear in the United States. Concern was expressed about the impact that DED could have on these trees.</p><br>
<p>DED first appeared on the Mall during the 1950s and reached a peak in the 1970s. The NPS has used a number of methods to control this fungal epidemic, including sanitation, pruning, injecting trees with fungicide and replanting with DED-resistant American elm cultivars (see Ulmus americana cultivars). The NPS cloned one such cultivar (Jefferson) from a DED-resistant tree growing near a path on the Mall in front of the Freer Gallery of Art, near the Smithsonian Institution Building ("The Castle").Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The NPS has combated the disease&#39;s local insect vector, the smaller European elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus), by trapping and by spraying with insecticides. Soil compaction and root damage by crowds and construction projects also adversely affect the elms.</p><br>
<p>On October 15, 1966, the NPS listed the National Mall on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1981, the NPS prepared a National Register nomination form that documented the Mall&#39;s boundaries, features and historical significance.</p><br>
<p>From the 1970s to 1994, a fiberglass model of a triceratops named Uncle Beazley stood on the Mall in front of the National Museum of Natural History. The life-size statue, which is now located at the National Zoological Park (the National Zoo) in Northwest Washington, D.C., was donated to the Smithsonian Institution by the Sinclair Oil Corporation. The statue, which Louis Paul Jonas created for Sinclairs DinoLand pavilion at the 1964 New York Worlds Fair, was named after a dinosaur in Oliver Butterworths 1956 childrens book, The Enormous Egg, and the 1968 televised movie adaptation in which the statue appeared.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the 108th United States Congress enacted the Commemorative Works Clarification and Revision Act. This Act prohibits the siting of new commemorative works and visitor centers in a designated reserve area within the cross-axis of the Mall.</p><br>
<p>In October 2013, a two-week federal government shutdown closed the National Mall and its museums and monuments. However, when a group of elderly veterans tried to enter the National World War II Memorial during the shutdowns first day, the memorials barricades were removed. The NPS subsequently announced that the veterans had a legal right to be in the memorial and would not be barred in the future. During the shutdown&#39;s second week, the NPS permitted an immigration rally and concert to take place on the Mall.</p><br>
<p>On December 8, 2016, the NPS listed on the National Register of Historic Places an increase in the National Mall Historic Districts boundary to encompass an area bounded by 3rd Street, NW/SW, Independence Avenue, SW, Raoul Wallenberg Place, SW, the CSX Railroad, the Potomac River, Constitution Avenue, NW, 17th Street, NW, the White House Grounds, and 15th Street, NW. The listings registration form, which contained 232 pages, described and illustrated the history and features of the historic district&#39;s proposed expanded area.</p><br>
<h2>Demolished or moved structures</h2><br>
<p>Washington City Canal, covered over by Constitution Avenue NW, 3rd Street NW, and SW and Canal Street SW (now Washington Street SW)</p><br>
<p>Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station, closed in 1907 when Washington Union Station opened</p><br>
<p>United States Department of Agriculture Building, demolished in 1930</p><br>
<p>Center Market, replaced in 1931 by the National Archives Building</p><br>
<p>Armory Square Hospital/Armory, replaced in 1976 by the National Air and Space Museum</p><br>
<p>Army Medical Museum and Library, demolished in 1968; replaced by the Hirshhorn Museum</p><br>
<p>Temporary Main Navy and Munitions Buildings, built in 1918, demolished in 1970; replaced by Constitution Gardens</p><br>
<p>Uncle Beazley, moved in 1994 to the National Zoo</p><br>
<h2>Usage</h2><br>
<p>In combination with the other attractions in the Washington Metropolitan Area, the National Mall makes the nation&#39;s capital city one of the most popular tourist destinations in the country. It has several other uses in addition to serving as a tourist focal point.</p><br>
<h3>Protests and rallies</h3><br>
<p>The National Mall&#39;s status as a vast, open expanse at the heart of the capital makes it an attractive site for protests and rallies of all types. One notable example was the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, a political rally during the Civil Rights Movement, at which Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his speech "I Have a Dream".</p><br>
<p>The largest officially recorded rally was the Vietnam War Moratorium Rally on October 15, 1969. However, in 1995, the NPS issued a crowd estimate for the Million Man March with which an organizer of the event, Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan, disagreed. The next year, a committee of the 104th United States Congress provided no funds for NPS crowd-counting activities in Washington, D.C., when it prepared legislation making 1997 appropriations for the USA Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>As a result, the NPS has not provided any official crowd size estimates for Mall events since 1995.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The absence of such an official estimate fueled a political controversy following the presidential inauguration of Donald Trump in 2017 (see: Inauguration of Donald Trump crowd size).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>On April 25, 2004, the March for Women&#39;s Lives filled the Mall. On January 27, 2007, tens of thousands of protesters opposed to the Iraq War converged on the Mall (see: January 27, 2007 anti-war protest), drawing comparisons by participants to the Vietnam War protest.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>On June 12, 2018, the National Hockey Leagues Washington Capitals staged a rally on the Mall after parading through the city to celebrate the franchises first Stanley Cup championship victory. Tens of thousands of fans reportedly joined the beer-soaked event.</p><br>
<h3>Presidential inaugurations</h3><br>
<p>The American presidential inauguration is a momentous occasion that symbolizes the peaceful transfer of power and the beginning of a new chapter in the nation&#39;s leadership. Held at the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., the inauguration draws people from across the country and the world to witness this historic event. The Capitol, with its majestic dome and iconic architecture, serves as the backdrop for the ceremony. The Mall, stretching from the Capitol to the Lincoln Memorial, becomes the gathering place for thousands of spectators who come to witness the swearing-in of the President and Vice President of the United States.</p><br>
<p>Days leading up to the inauguration are filled with anticipation and preparation. Security measures are heightened to ensure the safety of attendees and dignitaries. The National Mall, usually bustling with tourists and locals, transforms into a sea of spectators, eagerly awaiting the moment when the President-elect takes the oath of office. During presidential inaugurations, people without official tickets gather at the National Mall. Normally, the Mall between 7th and 14th Streets NW is used as a staging ground for the parade.</p><br>
<p>On December 4, 2008, the Presidential Inaugural Committee (see: United States presidential inauguration organizers) announced, "for the first time, the entire length of the National Mall will be opened to the public so that more people than ever before will be able to witness the swearing-in of the president from a vantage point in sight of the Capitol." The committee made this arrangement because of the massive attendance – projected to be as many as 2 million people – that it expected for the first inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009.</p><br>
<p>Despite the arrangement, a throng of people seeking access to the event climbed and then removed temporary protective fences around the Smithsonians Mary Livingston Ripley Garden, six blocks from the site at which Obama took his inaugural oath. Hordes then trampled the gardens vegetation and elevated plant beds when entering and leaving the event. Others could not find a way to enter the Mall in time to view the ceremony. More than a thousand people with purple tickets missed the event while being stranded in the I-395 Third Street Tunnel beneath the Mall after police directed them there (see Purple Tunnel of Doom).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Coordinates of Third Street Tunnel: 38.8897468&deg; latitude, -77.0143747&deg; longitude Terrance W. Gainer, the Sergeant at Arms of the United States Senate, stated that it appeared that the stranding had occurred because there were more bulky people in coats than the event&#39;s purple section could accommodate. The Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies subsequently announced that ticket holders that were not admitted would receive copies of the swearing-in invitation and program, photos of Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, and a color print of the ceremony.</p><br>
<h3>Other events and recreational activities</h3><br>
<p>The National Mall has long served as a spot for jogging, picnics, and light recreation for the Washington population. The Smithsonian Carousel, located on the Mall in front of the Arts and Industry Building, is a popular attraction. The Allan Herschell Company built the carousel, which arrived at Gwynn Oak Park near Baltimore, Maryland, in 1947. The carousel was moved to the Mall in 1981 and now operates seasonally.</p><br>
<h4>Annual events</h4><br>
<p>A number of large free events recur annually on the Mall. A kite festival, formerly named the "Smithsonian Kite Festival" and now named the "Blossom Kite Festival", usually takes place each year on the Washington Monument grounds during the last weekend of March as part of the National Cherry Blossom Festival. The event&#39;s organizers cancelled the 2020 kite festival, which they had earlier scheduled to take place on the Washington Monument grounds on Saturday, March 28, because of concerns related the ongoing coronavirus pandemic.</p><br>
<p>An Earth Day celebration often takes place on the Mall around April 22.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>A week-long series of rallies, exhibits, observances and performances occurred on the Mall from April 17 to April 25, 2010, to commemorate Earth Day&#39;s 40th anniversary.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The final day&#39;s events featured performances by Sting, Mavis Staples, the Roots, John Legend and others.</p><br>
<p>The 2012 Earth Day rally, which featured music, entertainment, celebrity speakers and environmental activities, took place on the Mall during a rainy day on Sunday, April 22. Cheap Trick, Dave Mason, Kicking Daisies, Sting, John Legend, Joss Stone, the Roots, Mavis Staples, Jimmy Cliff, Bob Weir and the Explorers Club performed and Congressmen John Dingell and Edward Markey spoke.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>In 2013, an "Earth Month" at Washington Union Station replaced the Mall&#39;s Earth Day event. On April 19, 2015, a "Global Citizen" Earth Day concert featured performances on the Washington Monument grounds by Usher, My Morning Jacket, Mary J. Blige, Train and No Doubt.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The National Symphony Orchestra presents each year its National Memorial Day Concert on the west lawn of the United States Capitol during the evening of the Sunday before Memorial Day (the last Monday of May).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The National Gallery of Art hosts a Jazz in the Garden series each year in the museum&#39;s Sculpture Garden on Friday evenings from late May through August.</p><br>
<p>Components of the United States Navy Band, the United States Air Force Band, the United States Marine Band and the United States Army Band perform on the west steps of the United States Capitol on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday evenings, respectively, during June, July and August.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The Marine Band repeats each Wednesday Capitol performance on the following evening (Thursday) at the Sylvan Theater on the grounds of the Washington Monument. Components of USA military bands also provide evening concerts at the World War II Memorial from May through August.</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Folklife Festival takes place on the Mall each year for two weeks around Independence Day (July 4). On that holiday, the A Capitol Fourth concert takes place in the late afternoon and early evening on the west lawn of the Capitol. This and other Independence Day celebrations on and near the Mall end after sunset with a fireworks display between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The National Symphony Orchestra presents each year its Labor Day Capitol Concert on the west lawn of the United States Capitol during the evening of the Sunday before Labor Day (the first Monday of September).</p><br>
<h4>Other events</h4><br>
<p>On April 9, 1939, singer Marian Anderson gave an Easter Sunday concert at the Lincoln Memorial after the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) denied a request by Howard University for her to give an Easter performance at the DARs nearby racially segregated Constitution Hall (see: Marian Andersons 1939 Lincoln Memorial concert). The event, which 75,000 people attended, occurred after President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave his assent for the performance.</p><br>
<p>The 1976 United States Bicentennial celebration provided the motivation for planning to accommodate large numbers of expected visitors to the National Mall. A number of major memorials were added to the Mall throughout that period. On May 21, 1976, Constitution Gardens was dedicated. On July 1, the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum opened. On July 4, the Bicentennial fireworks display on the Mall attracted one million viewers, making it second only to the 1965 presidential inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson as the largest event in the Mall&#39;s history up to that time.</p><br>
<p>On Sunday, October 9, 1979, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass on the National Mall during a visit to Washington. The celebration took place after an appellate court denied a motion for an injunction that atheists Madalyn Murray O&#39;Hair and Jon Garth Murray had filed to prevent the event from occurring.</p><br>
<p>From 1980 through 1982, the Beach Boys and the Grass Roots performed Independence Day concerts on the Mall, attracting large crowds. However, in April 1983, Secretary of the Interior James G. Watt, banned Independence Day concerts on the Mall by such groups.</p><br>
<p>Watt said that "rock bands" that had performed on the Mall on Independence Day in 1981 and 1982 had encouraged drug use and alcoholism and had attracted "the wrong element", who would mug individuals and families attending any similar events in the future. Watt then announced that Las Vegas crooner Wayne Newton, a friend and supporter of President Ronald Reagan and a contributor to Republican Party political campaigns, would perform at the Mall&#39;s 1983 Independence Day celebration.</p><br>
<p>During the ensuing uproar, Rob Grill, lead singer of the Grass Roots, stated that he felt "highly insulted" by Watts remarks, which he called "nothing but un-American". The Beach Boys stated that the Soviet Union, which had invited them to perform in Leningrad in 1978, "obviously.... did not feel that the group attracted the wrong element". Vice President George H. W. Bush said of the Beach Boys, "Theyre my friends and I like their music".</p><br>
<p>On July 3, 1983, thousands attended a heavily policed "Rock Against Reagan" concert that the hardcore punk rock band, Dead Kennedys, performed on the Mall in response to Watt&#39;s action.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>When Newton entered an Independence Day stage on the Mall on July 4, members of his audience booed.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Watt apologized to the Beach Boys, First Lady Nancy Reagan apologized for Watt, and in 1984 the Beach Boys gave an Independence Day concert on the Mall to an audience of 750,000 people.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>On September 4, 2003, Britney Spears, Mary J. Blige, Aretha Franklin, Aerosmith and others performed in a nationally televised "NFL Kickoff Live from the National Mall Presented by Pepsi Vanilla" (see: Pre-game concerts for National Football League kickoff game). Preceded by a three-day National Football League "interactive Super Bowl theme park", the event had primarily commercial purposes, unlike earlier major activities on the Mall. Three weeks later, the United States Senate overwhelmingly passed legislation that, when enacted into law, limited displays of commercial sponsorship on the Mall.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>On July 7, 2007, one leg of Live Earth was held outdoors at the National Museum of the American Indian on the Mall. Former Vice President Al Gore presented, and artists such as Garth Brooks and Trisha Yearwood performed.</p><br>
<p>Occurring once every two to three years on the Mall in the early fall from 2002 to 2009, the USA Department of Energy Solar Decathlon displayed solar-powered houses that competitive collegiate teams designed, constructed and operated. Igniting a controversy, the Department of Energy (DOE) decided to move the 2011 Decathlon off the Mall, claiming that this would support an effort to protect, improve and restore the park. Federal officials stated that heavy equipment that had placed two-story houses on the Mall during earlier Decathlons had cracked walkways and killed grass to a greater extent than had most other Mall events.</p><br>
<p>On February 4, 2011, a Washington Post editorial criticized attempts to have President Obama restore the Decathlon to the Mall. Nevertheless, by February 12, 2011, at least thirteen USA senators had signed a letter asking the DOE to reconsider its decision. On February 23, 2011, the DOE and the Department of the Interior announced that the 2011 Solar Decathlon would take place along Ohio Drive southeast of the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial in West Potomac Park.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The event took place in the Park from September 23 through October 2, 2011. The 2013 Decathlon took place in Irvine, California, instead of Washington.</p><br>
<p>From 2003 to 2013, the National Book Festival took place on the Mall each year in late September or early October.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>However, the event moved to the Walter E. Washington Convention Center in 2014 because the NPS became concerned about the damage that pedestrians had inflicted on the Mall&#39;s lawn during previous Festivals.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>A four-day exhibition took place each year on the Mall during Public Service Recognition Week (the first full week of May) until 2010. Government agencies participating in the event sponsored exhibits that displayed the works of public employees and that enabled visitors to learn about government programs and initiatives, discuss employee benefits, and interact with agency representatives.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>However, the 2011 United States federal budget (Public Law 112-10), which was belatedly enacted on April 15, 2011, contained no funding for that years event, forcing the events cancellation. The event did not take place in 2012.</p><br>
<p>On June 12, 2010, Tareq and Michaele Salahi, a couple under investigation for allegedly crashing a White House state dinner for the prime minister of India in November 2009 (see: 2009 USA state dinner security breaches), hosted an America&#39;s Polo Cup match between the United States and India on the Mall, charging $95 per person for admission. A spokesman for the Embassy of India stated that neither the Embassy nor the government of India had any association with the event. Reports of the event stated that the players who represented India were actually of Pakistani origin and were from Florida.</p><br>
<p>The inaugural USA Science and Engineering Festival Expo took place on the National Mall and surrounding areas on October 23 and 24, 2010. More than 1,500 free interactive exhibits reportedly drew about 500,000 people to the event, which had over 75 performances. The second Expo took place on April 28–29, 2012, in the Walter E. Washington Convention Center.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>On Veterans Day, November 11, 2014, Bruce Springsteen, Eminem, Rihanna, Metallica, Carrie Underwood, Dave Grohl, the Zac Brown Band and other pop entertainers performed on the Mall during a free evening Concert for Valor honoring veterans and their families. Attendance was in the hundreds of thousands, making it one of the biggest events on the Mall for the year.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The annual Screen on the Green movie festival took place on the Mall on Monday nights during July and August for 17 years until 2015. Free classic movies were projected on large portable screens and typically drew crowds of thousands of people. Organizers cancelled the event in 2016 when the event&#39;s sponsors (HBO and Comcast) terminated their support, stating that they needed their resources for other projects.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>During October 2020, artist Suzanne Brennan Firstenberg installed 267,080 white flags within a 4 acre site at the D.C. Armory Parade Grounds near Washington&#39;s Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium to temporarily memorialize the lives lost in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>She recreated her memorial on the Washington Monument grounds during September 2021 when covering for three weeks a 20 acre area with 700,000 white flags.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>From September 29, 2023, until October 1, 2023, the National Mall hosted the third global World Culture Festival, featuring performances from around the world and speeches from global leaders.</p><br>
<h2>Improvements and future plans</h2><br>
<h3>National Mall Plan</h3><br>
<p>From 2006 through 2010, the NPS conducted a public process that created a plan for the future of the National Mall. On July 13, 2010, the NPS issued in the Federal Register a notice of availability of a final environmental impact statement (EIS) for the National Mall Plan. The two-volume final EIS responded to comments and incorporated changes to a draft EIS for the Plan.</p><br>
<p>On November 9, 2010, the NPS and the Department of the Interior issued a Record of Decision (ROD) that completed the planning process. The ROD contains a summary of the selected alternative, which is the basis for the Plan, together with mitigation measures developed to minimize environmental harm; other alternatives considered; the basis for the decision in terms of planning objectives and the criteria used to develop the preferred alternative; a finding of no impairment of park resources and values; the environmentally preferable alternative; and the public and agency involvement.</p><br>
<p>The Plan proposed several changes to the Mall. The NPS would construct a vast expanse of paved surface in Union Square at the east end of the Mall to accommodate demonstrations and other events by reducing the size of the Capitol Reflecting Pool or by replacing the pool with a fountain or other minor water feature. Additional proposed changes included the replacement of the Sylvan Theater on the Washington Monument grounds with a facility containing offices, restaurants, and restrooms, as well as the replacement of an open space near the east end of Constitution Gardens with a multipurpose visitor facility containing food service, retail, and restrooms.</p><br>
<p>On December 2, 2010, the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) unanimously approved the final National Mall Plan at a public hearing.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The NCPCs approval allowed the NPS to move forward with implementation of the Plans recommendations.</p><br>
<p>On March 1, 2012, the NCPC discussed a proposal that, when implemented, reduced the Malls green space by widening and paving most of the north–south walkways that cross the Mall between Seventh and Fourteenth Streets. The project also replaced with gravel large areas of grass that were located near the Smithsonian Metro Station and the National Gallery of Arts Sculpture Garden.</p><br>
<p>On September 8, 2011, the Trust for the National Mall and the NPS announced an open competition for a redesign of the spaces on the National Mall that Union Square, the Sylvan Theater grounds and the Constitution Gardens lake now occupy. Former First Lady of the United States Laura Bush agreed to be the honorary co-chair of a drive to raise funds for the three projects.</p><br>
<p>On April 9, 2012, the Trust for the National Mall announced the ideas for the redesign of Union Square, the Sylvan Theater grounds and Constitution Gardens lake area that finalists in the competition had submitted. The Trust asked the public to submit online comments that the competition jury would consider when evaluating each design.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The Trust announced the winners of the competition on May 2, 2012. Groundbreaking for the first project was expected to take place by 2014, with the first ribbon-cutting ceremony by 2016.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The competition winners were as follows:</p><br>
<p>Union Square: Gustafson Guthrie Nichol + Davis Brody Bond</p><br>
<p>Sylvan Theater on the Washington Monument Grounds: OLIN + Weiss/Manfredi</p><br>
<p>Constitution Gardens: Rogers Marvel Architects + Peter Walker and Partners</p><br>
<p>On October 1, 2015, the NCPC approved the preliminary and final site and building plans that the NPS had submitted for the first phase rehabilitation of Constitution Gardens. Plans included the relocation and rehabilitation of the Lockkeepers House, C & O Canal Extension, a new entry plaza at the corner of Constitution Avenue and 17th Street, NW, landscaping, a meadow and pollinator habitat and a new perimeter garden wall. A temporary path would connect to an existing plaza located at the eastern end of Constitution Gardens lake.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The NPS began to implement the first phase rehabilitation of Constitution Gardens in 2017. A Park Service contractor moved the Lockkeepers House, C & O Canal Extension, southward and westward away from Constitution Avenue, NW and 17th Street, NW while retaining the structures east–west orientation.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The NPS restored the buildings exterior to the conditions that had existed before the building was modified during 1915 and earlier years. The NPS also replaced the structures brick chimneys, thus restoring the building to its original 1800s appearance. The building reopened temporarily in late August 2018 and permanently on September 13 of that year.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The structure now serves in its new location as an NPS education center.</p><br>
<h3>Reconstruction and restoration</h3><br>
<p>From 2010 to 2012, NPS contractors rebuilt the aging Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, which had first been constructed in the early 1920s and whose water had come from the pipes that supply Washington, D.C., with its drinking water. As a result of the project, the pool now receives filtered water from the Tidal Basin through a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipeline.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The NPS then began a four-year restoration of the portion of the central axis of the Mall that lies between 3rd Street and 14th Street. By 2016, the restoration project had completely replaced the deteriorated and weedy turf that had previously covered much of that part of the Mall with a new cover containing soil, fescue (Festuca) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis).Multiple sources:</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<h3>Public transportation</h3><br>
<p>The National Mall is accessible via the Washington Metro, with the Smithsonian station located on the south side of the Mall, near the Smithsonian Institution Building between the Washington Monument and the United States Capitol.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The Federal Triangle, Archives, Judiciary Square and Union Station Metro stations are also located near the Mall, to the north.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>The L&#39;Enfant Plaza, Federal Center Southwest and Capitol South Metro stations are located several blocks south of the Mall.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Metrobus and the DC Circulator make scheduled stops near the Mall.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<h3>Bicycles</h3><br>
<p>The NPS provides parking facilities for bicycles near each of the major memorials as well as along the National Mall. From March to October, an NPS concessionaire rents out bicycles at the Thompson Boat Center, located near the intersection of Virginia Avenue NW and Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway, 1 mi north of the Lincoln Memorial along the Potomac River-Rock Creek Trail.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Coordinates of Thompson Boat Center: 38.9003057&deg; latitude, -77.0580733&deg; longitude The first two of five approved Capital Bikeshare stations opened on the National Mall on March 16, 2012, shortly before the start of the 2012 National Cherry Blossom Festival.</p><br>
<p>The National Mall is the official midpoint of the East Coast Greenway, a 2,900 mile–long system of shared-use bicycle trails linking Calais, Maine, with Key West, Florida.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<h3>Electric scooters and Segways</h3><br>
<p>The use of an electric scooter or a Segway falls under the NPS definition of recreational use of a self-propelled vehicle. People without identified disabilities can only use such vehicles on park roadways. NPS rules, therefore, prohibit people without disabilities from using electric scooters and Segways on sidewalks and paths within the National Mall and its memorials.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Several companies rent out electric scooters within the District of Columbia. However, the National Mall is outside of those companies&#39; service areas. Some such companies, therefore, charge fines for people who end their rides on the Mall. Others do not allow people to end their trips until they have left the area.</p><br>
<h3>Pedicabs</h3><br>
<p>The NPS licenses pedicab drivers to provide transportation and tours of the National Mall through its Commercial Use Authorization program.</p><br>
<h3>Motor vehicle parking</h3><br>
<p>General visitor parking is available along Ohio Drive SW, between the Lincoln and Thomas Jefferson Memorials. Bus parking is available primarily along Ohio Drive, SW, near the Lincoln and Thomas Jefferson Memorials, and along Ohio Drive SW, in East Potomac Park. There is limited handicapped parking at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt and World War II Memorials and near the Washington Monument and the Thomas Jefferson, Lincoln, Korean War Veterans, and Vietnam Veterans Memorials; otherwise, parking is extremely scarce in and near the Mall.</p><br>
<p>In April 2017, the NPS awarded a contract for the installation of parking meters on streets and in parking areas on the Mall. On June 12, 2017, the NPS and the District of Columbia Department of Public Works began to enforce metered parking on approximately 1,100 parking spaces in which motorists could previously park without charge.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<p>&lt;3)</p><br>
<h2>Weather and climate</h2><br>
<p>On July 16, 2016, speakers and musicians participated in a gathering of thousands of evangelicals during a Together 2016 rally on the Mall. Although the event was originally scheduled to conclude at 9 p.m., it ended at 4 p.m. due to excessive heat. Officers reportedly responded to 350 medical calls for heat-related injuries. The large number of people who lost consciousness because of heat syncope overwhelmed emergency medical technicians.</p><br>
<p>On July 1, 2021, an EF1 tornado formed in Arlington County, Virginia at 8:59 p.m., crossed the Potomac River near the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge, and traveled eastward along the National Mall before dissipating near 16th Street NW and Constitution Avenue south of the White House and The Ellipse, 4.4 mi from where it had started. Its maximum winds were 90 mph, and it was as wide as 125 yd. The National Weather Service reported that wind damage to trees on the Mall "was prominent from 23rd St NW east for 0.75 mi to near 16th Street NW south of The Ellipse". The weather service stated that the tornado lifted up and twisted temporary fencing installed on the Mall for the upcoming July 4 Independence Day celebration. The fencing landed in a "mangled and haphazard manner" before the twister dissipated at 9:05 p.m.Multiple sources:</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The National Mall is a common backdrop and setting for films, television shows, and other forms of media. The Mall is the setting for a famous scene in Forrest Gump, in which Forrest gives a speech during the 1967 March on the Pentagon at the Lincoln Memorial. The film National Treasure is set on and around the National Mall. The Mall is also a common setting in several superhero movies. Spider-Man: Homecoming, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, and Wonder Woman 1984 all have prominent scenes on the Mall. The comedic film Wedding Crashers is set in Washington, D.C., and has scenes on the Mall. Additionally, the mall is a common feature of the Netflix series House of Cards. The Mall is also a setting of season three, episode three of the show Family Guy, as well as season 17, episode 11 of the show, nicknamed "Trump Guy".</p><br>
<p>News organisations that present live coverage or recorded programs from Washington often use the Mall as a backdrop.</p><br>
<h2>Other attractions nearby</h2><br>
<p>Other attractions within walking distance of the National Mall (proper) include:</p><br>
<h3>East of the Capitol</h3><br>
<p>Folger Shakespeare Library</p><br>
<p>Library of Congress</p><br>
<p>United States Supreme Court Building</p><br>
<h3>Northeast of the National Mall (proper)</h3><br>
<p>Holodomor Genocide Memorial</p><br>
<p>Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism During World War II</p><br>
<p>National Postal Museum</p><br>
<p>Robert A. Taft Memorial</p><br>
<p>Washington Union Station</p><br>
<h3>North of the National Mall (proper)</h3><br>
<p>Ford&#39;s Theatre</p><br>
<p>George Gordon Meade Memorial</p><br>
<p>Inlay of LEnfants plan for the federal capital city in Freedom Plaza</p><br>
<p>National Archives</p><br>
<p>National Building Museum</p><br>
<p>National Law Enforcement Museum</p><br>
<p>National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial</p><br>
<p>National Museum of Women in the Arts</p><br>
<p>National Portrait Gallery</p><br>
<p>National Theatre</p><br>
<p>Old Post Office Building and Clock Tower</p><br>
<p>Pershing Park and National World War I Memorial</p><br>
<p>Smithsonian American Art Museum</p><br>
<p>United States Navy Memorial</p><br>
<h3>Northwest of the National Mall (proper)</h3><br>
<p>Albert Einstein Memorial</p><br>
<p>Boy Scout Memorial</p><br>
<p>Butt–Millet Memorial Fountain</p><br>
<p>Enid Haupt FountainsMultiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Coordinates of Enid Haupt Fountains:East: 38&deg;53&prime;32.5&Prime;N latitude, 77&deg;02&prime;11.012&Prime;W longitudeWest: 38&deg;53&prime;32.5&Prime;N latitude, 77&deg;02&prime;12.175&Prime;W longitude</p><br>
<p>First Division Monument</p><br>
<p>German-American Friendship Garden</p><br>
<p>Interior Museum</p><br>
<p>John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts</p><br>
<p>National Christmas Tree</p><br>
<p>Second Division Memorial</p><br>
<p>Settlers of the District of Columbia MemorialMultiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Coordinates of the Settlers of the District of Columbia Memorial: 38&deg;53&prime;37.5&Prime;N latitude, 77&deg;02&prime;01.9&Prime;W longitude</p><br>
<p>Statues of the Liberators</p><br>
<p>The Ellipse</p><br>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt Island</p><br>
<p>USA Capitol Gatehouses and Gateposts</p><br>
<p>White House (on a line directly north of the Washington Monument)</p><br>
<p>Zero Milestone</p><br>
<h3>West of the National Mall (proper)</h3><br>
<p>Arlington Memorial Bridge</p><br>
<p>The Arts of War and The Arts of Peace statues at the eastern approach to the Arlington Memorial Bridge</p><br>
<p>Marine Corps War Memorial</p><br>
<p>Netherlands Carillon</p><br>
<h3>Southwest of the National Mall (proper)</h3><br>
<p>Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial</p><br>
<p>Arlington National Cemetery</p><br>
<p>Bureau of Engraving and Printing</p><br>
<p>Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial</p><br>
<p>George Mason Memorial</p><br>
<p>Jefferson Memorial</p><br>
<p>Lady Bird Johnson Park</p><br>
<p>Lyndon Baines Johnson Memorial Grove on the Potomac</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial</p><br>
<p>Tidal Basin</p><br>
<p>United States Forest Service MuseumMultiple sources:</p><br>
<p>Coordinates of the United States Forest Service Museum: 38&deg;53&prime;15.4&Prime;N latitude, 77&deg;2&prime;0.23&Prime;W longitude</p><br>
<p>United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</p><br>
<p>Women in Military Service for America Memorial</p><br>
<h3>South of the National Mall (proper)</h3><br>
<p>American Veterans Disabled for Life Memorial</p><br>
<p>Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial</p><br>
<p>International Spy Museum</p><br>
<p>L&#39;Enfant Promenade and Plaza</p><br>
<p>Museum of the Bible</p><br>
<p>Overlook in Benjamin Banneker Park</p><br>
<p>Hollywood Forever Cemetery is a full-service cemetery, funeral home, crematory, and cultural events center which regularly hosts community events such as live music and summer movie screenings. It is one of the oldest cemeteries in Los Angeles, California and is located at 6000 Santa Monica Boulevard in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Hollywood. It was founded in 1899 as Hollywood Cemetery, and starting in 1939 was known as Hollywood Memorial Park, until 1998, when it was given its current name. The studios of Paramount Pictures are located at the south end of the same block, on 40 acre that were once an undeveloped part of the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Individuals interred in the cemetery include many prominent people from the entertainment industry, as well as people who played vital roles in shaping Los Angeles.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The only cemetery actually in Hollywood, Hollywood Forever was founded in 1899 on 100 acre and named "Hollywood Cemetery" by F. W. Samuelson and (first name unknown) Lombard. In 1897, the two men were the owners of a 60 acre tract of land near Hollywood in Los Angeles County. In that year, they—along with Mrs. M. W. Gardner of Santa Monica, Joseph D. Rodford, Gilbert Smith, and Thomas R. Wallace—formed a corporation known as the "Hollywood Cemetery Association. The cemetery sold large tracts to Paramount Pictures, which, with RKO Pictures, bought 40 acre by 1920. Part of the remaining land was set aside for the Beth Olam Cemetery, a dedicated Jewish burial ground for members of the local Jewish community.</p><br>
<p>Jules Roth (1900–1998) was a convicted felon and millionaire. In 1939, he bought a 51% stake in the cemetery, which is the interment site of his parents. He used the money from the cemetery&#39;s operations to pay for his personal luxuries. At that time, the cemetery was known as Hollywood Memorial Park. In the 1980s, the cemetery began to show signs of neglect and disrepair.</p><br>
<p>Actress Hattie McDaniel, best known for her role as Mammy in the epic movie Gone with the Wind (for which she became the first African American to win an Academy Award) had expressed a desire to be interred at Hollywood Memorial Park. At the time of McDaniels death in 1952, Hollywood Memorial, like other cemeteries, was segregated. Despite McDaniels expressed wish, Roth would not allow the actress to be interred in the cemetery. Hollywood Forever would be desegregated seven years later. In 1999 (the 47th anniversary of McDaniels death), the cemeterys current owner dedicated a cenotaph in her honor at a prime location south of Sylvan Lake.</p><br>
<p>In July, 1974, the crematory was shut down following the cremation of singer Cass Elliot. According to cemetery grounds supervisor Daniel Ugarte, the crematory was in such disrepair that bricks began falling in around Elliot&#39;s remains. The crematory remained closed for twenty-eight years until it was repaired and re-opened in 2002. The first incineration to be conducted at the cemetery since the incident, before the official reopening, was of George Harrison on November 29, 2001.</p><br>
<p>By the 1980s, the California Cemetery Board began receiving regular complaints from the families of people interred there. Family members complained that the grounds were not kept up and were disturbed to hear stories about vandalism on the cemetery grounds. The heirs of well-known makeup artist Max Factor (who was interred in the Beth Olam Mausoleum in 1938) moved his and other family members remains to Hillside Memorial Park in Culver City after the mausoleum sustained water damage that discolored the walls.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, a Los Angeles woman and 1,000 other plot owners filed a class action lawsuit against the cemetery for invasion of privacy after they discovered that Roth allowed employees of Paramount Pictures to park in the cemetery while the studio&#39;s parking structure was undergoing construction.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1980s, Jules Roth sold two lawns totaling 3 acre that were facing the Santa Monica Boulevard front of the property. It was reported that the property was paid for with cash. Those lawns are now strip malls that house, among other businesses, an auto parts store and a laundromat.</p><br>
<p>After the 1994 Northridge earthquake, Roth could not afford to repair the roofs and other damage the earthquake caused to crypts. By that time, Hollywood Memorial was no longer making money and only generated revenue by charging families $500 for disinterments.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, Roth became ill after he fell in his Hollywood Hills home. He had been embroiled in a scandal regarding another cemetery he owned, Lincoln Memorial Park, in Carson, California in which hundreds on families came forward with a class-action suit over poor record keeping and missing bodies. Several months before his death, Roth was bedridden and disoriented, and during this time, his will was changed to provide for his business associates and maid, who were the only witnesses to his signature. His relatives, who were listed in his previous will, were written out. Roth died on January 4, 1998, and he was interred next to his wife, Virginia, his father, and his mother in the Cathedral Mausoleum. The state of California had revoked the cemetery&#39;s license to sell its remaining interment spaces.</p><br>
<p>After Roths death, the cemeterys subsequent owners Brent and Tyler Cassity, aka Tyo, LLC, discovered that the endowment care fund—meant to care for the cemetery in perpetuity—was missing about $9 million. Tyler Cassity also claimed that he discovered Mr. Roths bust in an antique shop, and that the bust was part of Mr. Roths personal artifacts that were sold at auction.</p><br>
<p>Those owners, Tyo, LLC, purchased the now 62 acre property that was on the verge of closure in a bankruptcy proceeding, in 1998 for $375,000. They renamed the cemetery "Hollywood Forever" and set out to give it a complete restoration, investing millions in revitalizing the grounds and also offering documentaries about the deceased that are to be played in perpetuity on kiosks and are posted on the Web, as well as organizing tours to draw visitors.</p><br>
<p>Since 2002, the cemetery has screened films on weekends during the summer and on holidays at a gathering called Cinespia. The screenings are held on the Douglas Fairbanks Lawn near the Fairbanks crypt and the films are projected onto the white marble west wall of the Cathedral Mausoleum. Music events take place in the cemetery as well. On June 14 and 15, 2011, The Flaming Lips played at the cemetery in a two-night gig billed "Everyone You Know Someday Will Die", a lyric from their 2002 single "Do You Realize??".</p><br>
<p>The cemetery contained a Confederate Monument, erected in 1925 and maintained by the Long Beach chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy until August 15, 2017.</p><br>
<p>On August 17, 2013, electronic/industrial musician Gary Numan recorded a live album at the cemetery during his Splinter World Tour. It was released on February 19, 2016.</p><br>
<p>Also in 2013, Brent Cassity and his father, James Douglas Cassity, admitted guilt in a $600 million Ponzi scheme involving their control of National Prearranged Services, Inc. Brent Cassity was sentenced to 5 years in federal prison; James "Doug" Cassity was likewise sentenced to 9 years and 7 months. James Douglas Cassity died of natural causes in 2020, following his release by the Federal Bureau of Prisons in an effort to mitigate the spread of COVID-19.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>A documentary about the cemetery called The Young and the Dead, was made in 2000.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is briefly shown in the short Stopover in Hollywood. The television series 90210 featured the cemetery in the episode "Hollywood Forever".</p><br>
<p>Father John Misty released a song titled "Hollywood Forever Cemetery Sings" on his 2012 album titled Fear Fun.</p><br>
<p>Talking Dead hosted a live 90-minute season premiere on the grounds, immediately following the Season 7 premiere of The Walking Dead. The grounds were also used to air the series finale of Breaking Bad.</p><br>
<p>Violet LeVoit&#39;s 2016 neo-noir novella I Miss The World takes place within the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was a featured location in the 2015 Michael Connelly book The Crossing.</p><br>
<p>The title and opening line of FINNEAS&#39; 2018 song "Hollywood Forever" mention the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Allison Ponthier&#39;s 2022 song "Hollywood Forever Cemetery" references the cemetery, and explores the nature of performance and celebrity both in life and after death.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h2>"Forever Tributes"</h2><br>
<p>The cemeterys website contains "Forever Tributes" of some interments, which consist of a video with introduction titles saying, "A Hollywood Forever Tribute, in honor of...(name)". The body of the video contains photos and film clips of the honoree, interviews with friends or relatives, and music and narration. The conclusion shows the honorees name, birth year, and death year. For example, the cemetery&#39;s "Life Stories Archive" has a tribute of Rudolph Valentino.</p><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge is a mountain lodge on the south side of Mount Hood in Clackamas County, Oregon, about 60 mi east of Portland. Constructed from 1936 to 1938 by the Works Progress Administration, it was built and furnished by local artisans during the Great Depression. Timberline Lodge was dedicated September 28, 1937, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.</p><br>
<p>The National Historic Landmark sits at an elevation of 6,000 ft, within the Mount Hood National Forest and is accessible through the Mount Hood Scenic Byway. Publicly owned and privately operated, Timberline Lodge is a popular tourist attraction that draws two million visitors annually. It is notable in film for serving as the exterior of the Overlook Hotel in The Shining (1980).</p><br>
<p>The lodge and its grounds host a ski resort, also known as Timberline Lodge. It has the longest skiing season in the USA, and is open for skiers and snowboarders all 12 months of the year. Activities include skiing, snowboarding, snowshoeing, hiking, biking, and climbing.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge, a mountain lodge and resort hotel, is a four-story structure of about 40,000 ft2. The ground-level exterior walls are heavy rubble masonry, using boulders from the immediate area, and heavy timber is used from the first floor up. The central head house section is hexagonal and 60 ft in diameter, with a six-sided stone chimney stack 90 ft high and 14 ft in diameter. Each of the six fireplace openings—three on the ground floor, three on the first floor—is 5 ft wide and 7 ft high. Two wings, running west and southeast, flank the head house. Oregon woods used throughout the building include cedar, Douglas fir, hemlock, western juniper and ponderosa pine.</p><br>
<p>The architect of Timberline Lodge is Gilbert Stanley Underwood, noted for the Ahwahnee Hotel and other lodges in the USA national park system. forest service engineer Ward Gano was structural designer.</p><br>
<p>Timberline Lodge was constructed between 1936 and 1938 as a Works Progress Administration project during The Great Depression. Eighty percent of the WPA&#39;s $695,730 total expenditure on building costs went toward labor. Skilled building trade workers received ninety cents an hour; unskilled laborers received fifty-five cents an hour. Some of the skilled stonemasons on the project were Italian immigrants brought in after working on The Historic Columbia River Highway and other roads in Oregon. About a hundred construction workers were on site at a given time, and lived at a nearby tent city. Jobs were rotated to provide work.</p><br>
<p>Materials costs were minimized by the skillful use of recycled materials. Women wove draperies, upholstery, and bedspreads. Hooked rugs were made from strips of old Civilian Conservation Corps camp blankets. Discarded cedar utility poles became newel-posts with their crowns hand-carved into birds, bears, and seals. Fireplace screens were fashioned from tire chains. Andirons and other iron work were forged from railroad tracks. WPA workers used large timbers and local stone from the site.</p><br>
<p>"All classes, from the most elementary hand labor, through the various degrees of skill to the technically-trained, were employed," reported the WPAs Federal Writers Project. "Pick and shovel wielders, stonecutters, plumbers, carpenters, steam-fitters, painters, wood-carvers, cabinet-makers, metal workers, leather-toolers, seamstresses, weavers, architects, authors, artists, actors, musicians, and landscape planners, each contributed to the project, and each, in his way, was conscious of the ideal toward which all bent their energies."</p><br>
<h3>Federal Art Project</h3><br>
<p>Federal Art Project contributions to the project were directed by Margery Hoffman Smith, Oregon Arts Project administrator. Smith created many designs for textiles and rugs. She designed the iconic "snow goose", the 750 lb bronze weather vane above the head house. Smith based the abstract forms incised into the lodge chimney on the art of the local Tenino people. Likely-acquainted with William Gray Purcell, a fellow resident of Portland, Smith saw the Prairie School aesthetic carried through in tables, chairs, sectional sofas, columns, bedspreads, draperies, lampshades, and pendant lighting fixtures. She commissioned murals, paintings and carvings from Oregon&#39;s WPA artists.</p><br>
<h2>Dedication</h2><br>
<p>During an inspection tour of government activities in the western USA, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated Timberline Lodge on September 28, 1937. In his speech, he said:</p><br>
<p>This Timberline Lodge marks a venture that was made possible by WPA, emergency relief work, in order that we may test the workability of recreational facilities installed by the Government itself and operated under its complete control.</p><br>
<p>Here, to Mount Hood, will come thousands and thousands of visitors in the coming years. Looking east toward eastern Oregon with its great livestock raising areas, these visitors are going to visualize the relationship between the cattle ranches and the summer ranges in the forests. Looking westward and northward toward Portland and the Columbia River, with their great lumber and other wood using industries, they will understand the part which National Forest timber will play in the support of this important element of northwestern prosperity.</p><br>
<p>Those who will follow us to Timberline Lodge on their holidays and vacations will represent the enjoyment of new opportunities for play in every season of the year. I mention specially every season of the year because we, as a nation, I think, are coming to realize that the summer is not the only time for play. I look forward to the day when many, many people from this region of the Nation are going to come here for skiing and tobogganing and various other forms of winter sports."</p><br>
<p>He dedicated the lodge, saying, "I am here to dedicate the Timberline Lodge and I do so in the words of the bronze tablet directly in front of me on the coping of this wonderful building: Timberline Lodge, Mount Hood National Forest dedicated September 28, 1937, by the President of the United States as a monument to the skill and faithful performance of workers on the rolls of the Works Progress Administration".</p><br>
<p>FDR and Eleanor Roosevelt enjoyed a celebratory luncheon including salmon and huckleberry pie. In her My Day column, Mrs. Roosevelt praised the lodge&#39;s architectural features: "It is built exclusively of native products and by WPA labor. The interesting central fire place with its many openings is a feature I have seen in no other building of its kind and no where have I seen such big timbers used. All the furniture, all the hangings, all the iron work as well, were made by WPA workers. Here is a group of workers who have the makings of a handcraft organization, and I hope their work will be appreciated. Mr. Griffith, the state WPA administrator, must be happy over the work done here."</p><br>
<p>Most work was complete at the time of the dedication. After some interior details were finished, the lodge opened to the public February 4, 1938.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>Franklin Roosevelt&#39;s vision of winter sports at Timberline Lodge took hesitant steps the following year. A portable rope tow was installed, and construction began on the Magic Mile chairlift, which opened November 1939.</p><br>
<p>In the lodge&#39;s early years, none of its four operators were willing or able to maintain it. By 1955, Timberline Lodge was closed.</p><br>
<p>Richard Kohnstamm, the next operator, recalled difficulties due to financing problems because the government claimed they owned it. Kohnstamm decided to maintain the place as if he owned it; he lost money during his first five years of operation, but his timing was fortuitous. He took over only a few years before skiing exploded in popularity in the late 1950s. That popularity helped the family generate a profit starting in 1960. Kohnstamm, "the man who saved Timberline", died at the age of 80 on April 21, 2006. Kohnstamm&#39;s son Jeff is the Area Operator of Timberline Lodge.</p><br>
<h3>As a shooting location</h3><br>
<h4>Film</h4><br>
<p>Exterior views of Timberline Lodge were used in The Shining (1980), Stanley Kubricks film adaptation of Stephen Kings 1977 novel set at the fictional Overlook Hotel. The staff and owners were concerned that guests would be reluctant to stay in Room 217 if it were featured in a horror movie; the management requested the room number be changed to the fictional Room 237, which Kubrick granted.</p><br>
<p>Other feature films shot at or around Timberline Lodge include Jingle Belles (1941), Bend of the River (1952), All the Young Men (1960), Lost Horizon (1973), Ski School (1991), Hear No Evil (1993), and Wild (2014).</p><br>
<h4>Television</h4><br>
<p>Brief exterior views of a snowy Timberline Lodge were used as a stand-in for a "Bavarian Ski Resort" in multiple episodes of Hogans Heroes. Director Boris Sagal was killed in an accident on the third day of filming the NBC-TV miniseries World War III (1982), after he walked into the tail rotor blades of a helicopter in Timberline Lodges parking lot.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>In 2017, the inaugural Overlook Film Festival was held at Timberline Lodge. The following year, the festival moved to New Orleans, Louisiana.</p><br>
<p>On April 18, 2024 a fire broke out at the lodge requiring multiple fire agencies to respond.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Hoover–Minthorn House is a museum in Newberg, Oregon, United States, created from the residence of Herbert Hoover, thirty-first President of the United States. Hoover lived there from 1885 to 1891, with his uncle and aunt John and Laura Minthorn. The Minthorns were administrators of the Quaker school Friends Pacific Academy, now George Fox University, which Hoover and his brother Tad attended.</p><br>
<p>The house, an Italianate design built in 1881 by Jesse Edwards, a Quaker merchant, is the first residence Edwards built and the oldest house still standing in what is now Newberg, Oregon. Representing vernacular design in the Willamette Valley, it was restored and opened to the public in 1955. It is located on 115 South River Street. Owned and operated as a house museum by the Oregon chapter of The National Society of the Colonial Dames of America, it has been furnished with late 19th-century period furnishings, including the bedroom furniture used by Hoover as a boy.</p><br>
<p>The house was placed on the National Register of Historic Places (as the Dr. Henry J. Minthorn House aka Herbert Hoover House) in 2003.</p><br>
<p>Wardenclyffe Tower , also known as the Tesla Tower, was an early experimental wireless transmission station designed and built by Nikola Tesla on Long Island in 1901–1902, located in the village of Shoreham, New York. Tesla intended to transmit messages, telephony, and even facsimile images across the Atlantic Ocean to England and to ships at sea based on his theories of using the Earth to conduct the signals. His decision to increase the scale of the facility and implement his ideas of wireless power transfer to better compete with Guglielmo Marconis radio-based telegraph system was met with refusal to fund the changes by the projects primary backer, financier J. P. Morgan. Additional investment could not be found, and the project was abandoned in 1906, never to become operational.</p><br>
<p>In an attempt to satisfy Tesla&#39;s debts, the tower was demolished for scrap in 1917 and the property taken in foreclosure in 1922. For 50 years, Wardenclyffe was a processing facility producing photography supplies. Many buildings were added to the site and the land it occupies has been trimmed down from 200 acre to 16 acre but the original, 94 by, brick building designed by Stanford White remains standing.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s and 2000s, hazardous waste from the photographic era was cleaned up, and the site was sold and cleared for new development. A grassroots campaign to save the site succeeded in purchasing the property in 2013, with plans to build a future museum dedicated to Nikola Tesla. In 2018, the property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Design and operational principles</h2><br>
<h3>Origin</h3><br>
<p>Tesla&#39;s design for Wardenclyffe grew out of his experiments beginning in the early 1890s. His primary goal in these experiments was to develop a new wireless power transmission system.</p><br>
<p>Tesla discarded the idea of using the newly discovered Hertzian waves (radio waves), detected in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. Tesla doubted they existed. Like most other scientists from that period, Tesla believed that if they did exist, the basic physics of such waves showed that they would only travel in straight lines the way visible light did, meaning they would travel straight out into space and be "hopelessly lost".</p><br>
<p>In laboratory work and later large-scale experiments at Colorado Springs, Colorado, in 1899, Tesla developed his own ideas on how a worldwide wireless system would work. He theorized from these experiments that if he injected electric current into the Earth at just the right frequency he could harness what he believed was the planet&#39;s own electrical charge and cause it to resonate at a frequency that would be amplified in "standing waves" that could be tapped anywhere on the planet to run devices or, through modulation, carry a signal. His system was based more on 19th century ideas of electrical conduction and telegraphy instead of the newer theories of electromagnetic waves, with an electrical charge being conducted through the ground and being returned through the air.</p><br>
<p>Tesla&#39;s design used a concept of a charged conductive upper layer in the atmosphere, Tesla not only believed that he could use this layer as his return path in his electrical conduction system, but that the power flowing through it would make it glow, providing night time lighting for cities and shipping lanes.</p><br>
<p>In February 1901, in a Collier&#39;s Weekly article titled "Talking With Planets", Tesla described his "system of energy transmission and of telegraphy without the use of wires" as:</p><br>
<p>(using) the Earth itself as the medium for conducting the currents, thus dispensing with wires and all other artificial conductors... a machine which, to explain its operation in plain language, resembled a pump in its action, drawing electricity from the Earth and driving it back into the same at an enormous rate, thus creating ripples or disturbances which, spreading through the Earth as through a wire, could be detected at great distances by carefully attuned receiving circuits. In this manner I was able to transmit to a distance, not only feeble effects for the purposes of signaling, but considerable amounts of energy, and later discoveries I made convinced me that I shall ultimately succeed in conveying power without wires, for industrial purposes, with high economy, and to any distance, however great.</p><br>
<p>Although Tesla demonstrated wireless power transmission at Colorado Springs, lighting electric lights mounted outside the building where he had his large experimental coil, he did not scientifically test his theories. He believed he had achieved Earth resonance which, according to his theory, would work at any distance.</p><br>
<h3>Financing</h3><br>
<p>Tesla was back in New York in January 1900. He had convinced his friend Robert Underwood Johnson, editor of The Century Magazine, to allow him to publish an article covering his work and Johnson had even sent a photographer to Colorado Springs the previous year to photograph Tesla&#39;s experiments. The article written by Tesla, titled "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy", appeared in the June 1900 edition of Century Magazine.</p><br>
<p>Instead of the understandable scientific description Johnson had hoped for, it was more of a lengthy philosophical treatise where Tesla described his futuristic ideas on harnessing the sun&#39;s energy, control of the weather with electricity, wireless control, and how future inventions would make war impossible. It also contained what were to become iconic images by photographer Dickenson Alley of Tesla and his Colorado Springs experiments.</p><br>
<p>Tesla made the rounds in New York trying to find investors for his system of wireless transmission, wining and dining them at the Waldorf-Astorias Palm Garden (the hotel where he was living at the time), The Players Club and Delmonicos. Tesla first went to his old friend George Westinghouse for help. Westinghouse seemed like a natural fit for the project given the large-scale AC equipment Westinghouse Electric manufactured and Tesla&#39;s need for similar equipment.</p><br>
<p>Tesla asked Westinghouse to "meet me on some fair terms in furnishing me the machinery, retaining the ownership of the same and interesting yourself to a certain extent". Though Westinghouse declined to buy into the project, he did agree to lend Tesla $6,000. Westinghouse suggested Tesla pursue some of the rich venture capitalists. Tesla talked to John Jacob Astor, Thomas Fortune Ryan, and even sent a cabochon sapphire ring as a gift to Henry O. Havemeyer. No investment was forthcoming from Havemeyer and Ryan, but Astor did buy 500 shares in Tesla&#39;s company. Tesla gained the attention of financier J. P. Morgan in November 1900.</p><br>
<p>Morgan was impressed by Guglielmo Marconis feat of sending reports from the Americas Cup yacht races off Long Island back to New York City via radio-based wireless the previous year, and he was dubious about the feasibility and patent priority of Tesla&#39;s system.</p><br>
<p>In several discussions, Tesla assured Morgan his system was superior to, and based on patents that superseded, that of Marconi and of other wireless inventors, and that it would far outpace the performance of its main competitor, the transatlantic telegraph cable. Morgan signed a contract with Tesla in March 1901, agreeing to give the inventor $150,000 to develop and build a wireless station on Long Island, capable of sending wireless messages to London as well as ships at sea. The deal also included Morgan having a 51% interest in the company as well as a 51% share in present and future wireless patents developed from the project.</p><br>
<h3>Design changes and financial problems</h3><br>
<p>Tesla began working on his wireless station immediately. As soon as the contract was signed with Morgan in March 1901, he placed an order for generators and transformers with Westinghouse Electric. Tesla&#39;s plans changed radically after he read a June 1901 Electrical Review article by Marconi titled "Syntonic Wireless Telegraph".</p><br>
<p>At this point, Marconi was transmitting radio signals beyond the range most physicists thought possible (over the horizon) and the description of the Italian inventor&#39;s use of a "Tesla coil" "connected to the Earth" led Tesla to believe Marconi was copying his earth resonance system to do it. Tesla, believing a small pilot system capable of sending Morse code yacht race results to Morgan in Europe would not be able to capture the attention of potential investors, decided to scale up his designs with a much more powerful transmitter, incorporating his ideas of advanced telephone and image transmission as well as his ideas of wireless power delivery.</p><br>
<p>In July 1901, Tesla informed Morgan of his planned changes to the project and the need for much more money to build it. He explained the more grandiose plan as a way to leap ahead of competitors and secure much larger profits on the investment. With Tesla basically proposing a breach of contract, Morgan refused to lend additional funds and demanded an account of money already spent. Tesla claimed a few years later that funds were also running short because of Morgan&#39;s role in triggering the stock market Panic of 1901, making everything Tesla had to buy much more expensive.</p><br>
<p>Morgan stated no additional funds would be supplied, but Tesla continued on with the project. He explored the idea of building several small towers or a tower 300 ft and even 600 ft tall to transmit the type of low-frequency longwaves that Tesla thought were needed to resonate the Earth. His friend, architect Stanford White, who was working on designing structures for the project, calculated that a 600-foot tower would cost $450,000 and the idea had to be canceled.</p><br>
<h2>Plant at Wardenclyffe</h2><br>
<p>Tesla purchased 200 acre of land close to a railway line 65 miles from New York City in Shoreham on Long Island Sound from land developer James S. Warden who was building a resort community known as Wardenclyffe-On-Sound. Tesla would later state his plans were to eventually make Wardenclyffe a hub "city" in his plans for a worldwide system of 30 wireless plants, sending messages and media content and broadcasting electrical power. The land surrounding the Wardenclyffe plant was intended to be what Tesla would later in life refer to as a "radio city" with factories producing Tesla&#39;s patented devices. Warden expected to build housing on the part of his remaining land for the expected 2,000–2,500 Tesla employees. At the end of July 1901 Tesla closed a contract for the building of the wireless telegraph plant and electrical laboratory at Wardenclyffe.</p><br>
<p>The final design Tesla started building at Wardenclyffe consisted of a wood-framed tower 186 ft tall and the cupola 68 ft in diameter. It had a 55-ton steel (some report it was a better conducting material, such as copper) hemispherical structure at the top (referred to as a cupola). The structure was such as to allow each piece to be taken out and replaced as necessary.</p><br>
<p>The main building occupied the rest of the facility grounds. Stanford White designed the Wardenclyffe facility main building. It included a laboratory area, instrumentation room, boiler room, generator room and machine shop. Inside the main building, there were electromechanical devices, electrical generators, electrical transformers, glass blowing equipment, X-ray devices, Tesla coils, a remote controlled boat, cases with bulbs and tubes, wires, cables, a library, and an office. It was constructed in the style of the Italian Renaissance. The tower was designed by W.D. Crow, an associate of White.</p><br>
<p>There was a great deal of construction under the tower to establish some form of ground connection but Tesla and his workers kept the public and the press away from the project so little is known. The descriptions (some from Teslas 1923 testimony in foreclosure proceedings on the property) include that the facility had a ten by twelve foot wood and steel lined shaft sunk into the ground 120 ft beneath the tower with a stairway inside it. Tesla stated that at the bottom of the shaft he "had special machines rigged up which would push the iron pipe, one length after another, and I pushed these iron pipes, I think sixteen of them, three hundred feet, and then the current through these pipes takes hold of the earth." In Teslas words, the function of this was "to have a grip on the earth so the whole of this globe can quiver". There is also contemporaneous and later descriptions of four 100 foot long tunnels, possibly brick lined and waterproofed, radiating from the bottom of the shaft north, south, east, and west terminating back at ground level in little brick igloos. Speculation on the tunnels ranges from them being for drainage, acting as access ways, or having the function of enhancing ground connection or resonance by interacting with the water table below the tower, maybe via being filled with salt water or liquid nitrogen.</p><br>
<p>The Tesla biographer John Joseph ONeill noted the cupola at the top of the 186 foot tower had a 5-foot hole in its top where ultraviolet lights were to be mounted, perhaps to create an ionized path up through the atmosphere that could conduct electricity. How Tesla intended to employ the ground conduction method and atmospheric method in Wardenclyffes design is unknown. Power for the entire system was to be provided by a coal fired 200 kilowatt Westinghouse alternating current industrial generator.</p><br>
<p>Construction began in September 1901 but money was so short (with Morgan still owing Tesla the remainder of the original $150,000 promised) Tesla complained in a letter to White he was facing foreclosure. Tesla kept writing Morgan letters pleading for more money and assuring the financier his wireless system would be superior to Marconis, but in December Teslas plans were dealt another serious blow when Marconi announced to the world he was able to send a wireless transmission (the Morse code for the letter S) across the Atlantic.</p><br>
<p>Construction at Wardenclyffe continued through 1902 and in June of that year Tesla began moving his laboratory operations from 46 East Houston Street laboratory to the 94-foot-square brick building at Wardenclyffe. By the end of 1902 the tower reached full height of 187 feet. What Tesla was up to at Wardenclyffe and the site itself was generally kept from the public. Tesla would respond to reporters inquiries stating there was a similar wireless plant in Scotland and that "We have been sending wireless messages for long distances from this station for some time, but whether we are going into the telegraph field on a commercial basis I cannot say at present."</p><br>
<p>Tesla continued to write to Morgan asking the investor to reconsider his position on the contract and invest the additional funds the project needed. In a July 3, 1903 letter Tesla wrote "Will you help me or let my great work — almost complete — go to pots?" Morgans reply on July 14 was "I have received your letter and in reply would say that I should not feel disposed at present to make any further advances". The night of Morgans reply, and several nights after, newspapers reported that the Wardenclyffe tower came alive shooting off bright flashes lighting up the night sky. No explanation was forthcoming from Tesla or any of his workers as to the meaning of the display and Wardenclyffe never seemed to operate again.</p><br>
<p>Teslas finances continued to unravel. Investor money on Wall Street was continuing to flow to Marconis system, which was making regular transmissions, and doing it with equipment far less expensive than the "wireless plant" Tesla was attempting to build. Some in the press began turning against Teslas project claiming it was a hoax and the "rich mans panic" of late 1903 on Wall Street reduced investment further. Some money came from Thomas Fortune Ryan but the funds went towards the debt on the project instead of funding any further construction. Investors seemed to be shying away from putting money into a project that J. P. Morgan had abandoned. Tesla continued to write Morgan trying to get extra funding stating his "knowledge and ability if applied effectively would advance the world a century". Morgan would only reply through his secretary saying "it will be impossible for to do anything in the matter". Teslas attempts to raise money by getting the US Navy interested in his remote control boat and torpedo and other attempts to commercialize his inventions went nowhere. In May 1905, Teslas patents on alternating current motors and other methods of power transmission expired, halting royalty payments and causing a further severe reduction of funding to the Wardenclyffe Tower. In an attempt to find alternative funding Tesla advertised the services of the Wardenclyffe facility but he was met with little success.</p><br>
<h3>Abandonment</h3><br>
<p>In 1906, the financial problems and other events may have led to what Tesla biographer Marc J. Seifer suspects was a nervous breakdown on Teslas part. In June architect Stanford White was murdered by Harry Kendall Thaw over Whites affair with Thaws wife, actress Evelyn Nesbit. In October long time investor William Rankine died of a heart attack. George Scherff, Teslas chief manager who had been supervising Wardenclyffe, had to leave to find other employment. The people living around Wardenclyffe noticed the Tesla plant seemed to have been abandoned without notice.</p><br>
<p>In 1904, Tesla took out a mortgage on the Wardenclyffe property with George C. Boldt, proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, to cover Teslas living expenses at the hotel. In 1908 Tesla procured a second mortgage from Boldt to further cover expenses. The facility was partially abandoned around 1911, and the tower structure deteriorated. Between 1912 and 1915, Teslas finances unraveled, and when the funders wanted to know how they were going to recoup their investments, Tesla was unable to give satisfactory answers.</p><br>
<p>The March 1, 1916 edition of the publication Export American Industries ran a story titled "Tesla&#39;s Million Dollar Folly" describing the abandoned Wardenclyffe site:</p><br>
<p>There everything seemed left as for a day — chairs, desks, and papers in businesslike array. The great wheels seemed only awaiting Monday life. But the magic word has not been spoken, and the spell still rests on the great plant.</p><br>
<p>By mid-1917 the facility&#39;s main building was breached and vandalized.</p><br>
<h3>Demolition</h3><br>
<p>By 1915, Tesla&#39;s accumulated debt at the Waldorf-Astoria was around. When Tesla was unable to make any further payments on the mortgages, Boldt foreclosed on the Wardenclyffe property. The scrap value realized was.</p><br>
<p>Since this was during World War I a rumor spread, picked up by newspapers and other publications, that the tower was demolished on orders of the United States Government with claims German spies were using it as a radio transmitter or observation post, or that it was being used as a landmark for German submarines. Tesla was not pleased with what he saw as attacks on his patriotism via the rumors about Wardenclyffe, but since the original mortgages with Boldt as well as the foreclosure had been kept off the public record in order to hide his financial difficulties, Tesla was not able to reveal the real reason for the demolition.</p><br>
<p>On April 20, 1922, Tesla lost an appeal of judgment on Boldt&#39;s original foreclosure.</p><br>
<h2>Post-Tesla era</h2><br>
<p>In 1925, the property ownership was transferred to Walter L. Johnson of Brooklyn. On March 6, 1939, Plantacres, Inc. purchased the facility&#39;s land and subsequently leased it to Peerless Photo Products, Inc.</p><br>
<p>AGFA Corporation bought the property from Peerless and used the site from 1969 to 1992 before closing the facility. The site has undergone a final cleanup of waste produced during its Photo Products era. The clean up was conducted under the scrutiny of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, and paid for by AGFA.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, AGFA put the property up for sale for $1,650,000. The main building remains standing to this day; AGFA advertised that the land can "be delivered fully cleared and level." It says it spent $5 million through September 2008 cleaning up silver and cadmium. A non-profit preservation organization supported by The Oatmeal purchased the land in 2013 with hopes to create a museum to Tesla there.</p><br>
<h3>Landmarking</h3><br>
<p>On February 14, 1967, the nonprofit public benefit corporation Brookhaven Town Historical Trust was established. It selected the Wardenclyffe facility to be designated as a historic site and as the first site to be preserved by the Trust on March 3, 1967. The Brookhaven Town Historic Trust was rescinded by resolution on February 1, 1972. There were never any appointments made after a legal opinion was received; it was never set up properly. On July 7, 1976, a plaque from Yugoslavia was installed by representatives from Brookhaven National Laboratory near the entrance of the building. It reads:</p><br>
<p>The sign was stolen from the property in November 2009. An anonymous benefactor is offering a $2,000 reward if it is returned to the property.</p><br>
<p>In 1976, an application was filed to nominate the main building for listing on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). It failed to get approval. The Tesla Wardenclyffe Project, Inc. was established in 1994 for the purpose of seeking placement of the Wardenclyffe laboratory-office building and the Tesla tower foundation on both the New York State and NRHP. Its mission is the preservation and adaptive reuse of Wardenclyffe, the century-old laboratory of electrical pioneer Nikola Tesla located in Shoreham, Long Island, New York.</p><br>
<p>In October 1994, a second application for formal nomination was filed. The New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation conducted inspections and determined the facility meets New York State criteria for historic designation. A second visit was made on February 25, 2009. The site cannot be registered until it is nominated by a willing owner.</p><br>
<p>Designation of the structure as a National Landmark is awaiting completion of plant decommissioning activities by its present owner.</p><br>
<h3>Museum</h3><br>
<p>In August 2012, concerned about an apparent offer to purchase the site and develop it for commercial use, web cartoon The Oatmeal launched a fundraiser for the Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe to raise $1.7 million to purchase the property, with the hope of eventually building a museum on the grounds.</p><br>
<p>Jane Alcorn, president of the nonprofit group The Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe, and Matthew Inman, creator of The Oatmeal, collaborated in 2012 to honor "the Father of the Electric Age", by preserving the Wardenclyffe facility as a science center and museum. They initiated the Let&#39;s Build a Goddamn Tesla Museum fund-raising campaign on the Indiegogo crowdfunding site, to raise funding to buy the Wardenclyffe property and restore the facility. The project reached its goal of raising $850,000 within a week, more than exceeded the requested amount, including a $33,333 donation from the producers of the Tesla film "Fragments from Olympus-The Vision of Nikola Tesla". The campaign also attracted donations from benefactors such as Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, Inc.</p><br>
<p>The money raised within one week was enough to get a matching grant from the state of New York, allowing the project to be able to meet the sellers asking price of $1.6 million; the state had agreed to match donations up to half that amount. A total of $1.37 million was donated, the matching grant from the State of New York brought the total collected to over $2.2 million. The surplus was to be used to fund the cleaning and restoration of the property. Tesla, Wardenclyffe and the museum fundraising effort was the subject of a documentary called Tower to the People – Teslas Dream at Wardenclyffe Continues.</p><br>
<p>On May 2, 2013, The Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe announced that they had purchased the 15.69-acre laboratory site from Agfa Corporation and will begin to raise "about $10 million to create a science learning center and museum worthy of Tesla and his legacy".</p><br>
<p>On May 13, 2014, The Oatmeal published a comic called "What It&#39;s Like to Own a Model S, Part 2", to request a further donation of $8 million from Tesla Motors founder Elon Musk. The next day, Musk tweeted that he "would be happy to help". On July 10, 2014, during a 158th birthday celebration for Tesla at the Wardenclyffe site, it was announced that Musk would donate $1 million toward funding the museum, and install a Tesla Motors supercharging station onsite.</p><br>
<p>The center plans to offer several programs, including science teacher associations, conferences, symposia, field trips, associations with science competitions, and other science programs. Planned permanent exhibits include a Tesla exhibit, exploratorium-type exhibits, and a living museum. On September 23, 2013, the President of Serbia, Tomislav Nikolić, unveiled a monument to Tesla at the Wardenclyffe site. Nikolić said that he had planned to push for the monument to be displayed at the United Nations, but chose Wardenclyffe once he learned it had been purchased for the center.</p><br>
<p>Emergency renovations on the chimney started in February 2020. A ground breaking event took place in June of 2023.</p><br>
<h2>Facility grounds</h2><br>
<p>Wardenclyffe is located near the Shoreham Post Office and Shoreham Fire House on Route 25A in Shoreham, Long Island, New York. Wardenclyffe was divided into two main sections. The tower, which was located in the back, and the main building now compose the entire facility grounds. At one time the property was about 200 acre. Now it consists of slightly less than 16 acre.</p><br>
<h2>2023 fire</h2><br>
<p>On 21 November 2023, just months after the groundbreaking, the laboratory building caught fire. Over 100 firefighters across Long Island helped contain the fire. Much of the original brick building survived.</p><br>
<h2>Related patents</h2><br>
<p>"Means for Generating Electric Currents", February 6, 1894</p><br>
<p>"Electrical Transformer", November 2, 1897</p><br>
<p>"Method Of Utilizing Radiant Energy", November 5, 1901</p><br>
<p>"Method of Signaling", March 17, 1903</p><br>
<p>"System of Signaling", April 14, 1903</p><br>
<p>"Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums", April 18, 1905</p><br>
<p>"Apparatus for Transmitting Electrical Energy", January 18, 1902, December 1, 1914</p><br>
<p>The Jamestown Exposition, also known as the Jamestown Ter-Centennial Exposition of 1907, was one of the many worlds fairs and expositions that were popular in the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Commemorating the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown in the Virginia Colony, it was held from April 26 to December 1, 1907, at Sewells Point on Hampton Roads, in Norfolk, Virginia. It celebrated the first permanent English settlement in the present United States. In 1975, the 20 remaining exposition buildings were included on the National Register of Historic Places as a national historic district.</p><br>
<h2>Site selection</h2><br>
<p>Early in the 20th century, as the tercentennial of the 1607 Founding of Jamestown in the Virginia Colony neared, leaders in Norfolk, Virginia began a campaign to have the celebration held there. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities had gotten the ball rolling in 1900 by calling for a celebration to honor the establishment of the first permanent English colony in the New World at Jamestown, to be held on the 300th anniversary.</p><br>
<p>During the planning phase, virtually no one thought that the original site of Jamestown would be suitable, as it was isolated and long-abandoned. There were no local facilities to handle large crowds, and it was believed that the fort housing the settlement had long ago been swallowed by the James River. No rail lines ran near Jamestown. Many Virginia residents thought that Richmond, the state capital, would be chosen as the site of the celebration.</p><br>
<p>On February 4, 1901, James M. Thomson began a campaign for the celebration in his Norfolk Dispatch, proclaiming: "Norfolk is undoubtedly the proper place for the holding of this celebration. Norfolk is today the center of the most populous portion of Virginia, and every historical, business and sentimental reason can be adduced in favor of the celebration taking place here rather than in Richmond." The Dispatch was an unrelenting champion of Norfolk as the site for the exposition, noting in subsequent editorials that "Richmond has absolutely no claim to the celebration except her location on the James River."</p><br>
<p>By September 1901, the Norfolk City Council had supported the project, and in December, 100 prominent residents of Hampton Roads journeyed to Richmond to urge Norfolk to be the site. In 1902, the Jamestown Exposition Co. was incorporated. Former Governor of Virginia Fitzhugh Lee, a nephew of General Robert E. Lee, was named its president.</p><br>
<p>The Company decided to locate the international exposition on a mile-long frontage at Sewell&#39;s Point. The location was almost an equal distance from the cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth, Newport News and Hampton. While hard to reach by land, it was much more favorably accessible by water, which ultimately proved a great asset.</p><br>
<h3>Issues with Sewell&#39;s Point</h3><br>
<p>Because of the isolation of Sewells Point, the companys choice made the site difficult to reach by land. Access to the site required the construction of new roads to develop it for the Exposition. Two existing streetcar lines had to be extended considerably to reach the site. The eastern portion of the newly built Tidewater Railway (soon to become part of the coal-hauling Virginian Railway) was rushed into service, and the local Norfolk Southern Railway agreed to add substantial passenger capacity in conjunction with the Tidewater Railway to prepare to move the thousands of daily attendees anticipated. New piers had to be constructed on the shore to move supplies to exposition buildings. Hotels had to be raised to handle the millions of expected exposition visitors. Bad weather slowed everything.</p><br>
<p>Another major setback was the death of Fitzhugh Lee in 1905 while traveling in New England to drum up trade for the celebration. Henry St. George Tucker III, a former Virginia Congressman, succeeded him. The Norfolk businessman David Lowenberg ran most of the operation as director general.</p><br>
<h2>Opening day</h2><br>
<p>Opening day was April 26, 1907, exactly 300 years after Christopher Newport and his band of English colonists made their first landing in Virginia at the point where the southern shore of the Chesapeake Bay meets the Atlantic Ocean. They recorded giving thanks, planting a cross, and naming the location Cape Henry. Within the next few weeks, they found and explored the harbor now known as Hampton Roads. Sailing upriver on its biggest tributary, the James River, they eventually settled at what they would call Jamestown to begin their first settlement.</p><br>
<p>The first day of the Exposition had its share of difficulties. Only a fifth of the electric lights could be turned on, and the Warpath recreation area was far from ready. Construction of the government pier left much of the ground in the center of the exposition muddy soup. Of the thirty-eight principal buildings and works that the Exposition Company planned for the fair, only fourteen had been completed by opening day—the Fire Engine House and the Waterfront Board Walk were completed only in the last two days. The company failed to complete two planned buildings, the Historic Art and Education buildings, by the Exposition&#39;s end in late November.</p><br>
<p>Prominent visitors included President Theodore Roosevelt, who opened the exposition and presided over the naval review. After the opening day, attendance dropped sharply and never again achieved projections. The Exposition Company had initially lobbied the federal government for $1,640,000 and received a loan for an additional million, to be repaid through a lien on 40% of the gate receipts. When crowds failed to appear in the anticipated numbers—the exposition was attracting an average of 13,000 visitors daily, only 7,400 of whom paid entrance—the company could repay only $140,000 of the million-dollar loan. The fair began attracting negative attention in the press as early as January before it opened, as a divisive split between planning committee members became public. The press who arrived for the opening day found the grounds unfinished, the hotels overpriced, and the transportation between the fair and nearby towns insufficient.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibitions</h2><br>
<p>In time, things improved, and portions of the event became spectacular. Planners asked each US state to contribute a building to the Exposition. While some of these buildings offered exhibits on the states history and industry, others primarily served as quasi-embassies for visitors from the state, providing sitting rooms and guest services. Lack of interest or funds prevented participation by all, but 21 states funded houses, which bore their names: for example, Pennsylvania House, Virginia House, New Hampshire House, etc. During the exposition, days were set aside to honor the states individually. The governor of each state usually appeared to greet visitors to the states house on these days. On June 10, 1907, "Georgia Day," Theodore Roosevelt returned to the Exposition, delivering a speech on the steps of the Georgia Building, which had been modeled after his mothers familys home. Emily Nelson Ritchie McLean, the President General of the Daughters of the American Revolution, was also in attendance.</p><br>
<p>The site included a 122 by relief model of the Panama Canal, a wild animal show, a Wild West show, and a re-creation of the then-recent San Francisco earthquake. Possibly the most popular attraction was a re-creation of the Battle of Hampton Roads, the first battle between two ironclad warships, the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia, which had taken place within sight of Sewell&#39;s Point 40 years earlier during the Civil War. The exterior of the Merrimac-Monitor Building looked somewhat like a battleship, while the interior held a large, circular exhibit describing the battle.</p><br>
<h3>International Naval Review</h3><br>
<p>Source:</p><br>
<p>The event included the naval review of warship fleets on June 10 by President Theodore Roosevelt, who arrived on the presidential yacht Mayflower. As the news coverage of Battle of Tsushima, Treaty of Portsmouth, and President Roosevelt winning the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize for hosting the peace treaty conference at Portsmouth were fresh in the mind of people, display of naval and military technology was an important theme that distinguished this exposition from the World Fairs in the past. The review included the sixteen battleships of the US Navy Atlantic Fleet including USS Georgia and many warships from foreign countries. One such example was the Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser Tsukuba, displaying the newest naval concept of a Battlecruiser that had the speed of a cruiser with the firepower and protective armor of a battleship.</p><br>
<p>Mark Twain and Henry H. Rogers also paid a visit, arriving in the latters yacht Kanawha. Ships of two squadrons commanded by Admiral Robley D. Evans stood off in the bay from Sewells Point. On opening day, an international fleet of fifty-one ships was on display. The assembly included 16 battleships, five cruisers, and six destroyers. The US Navy warships remained in Hampton Roads after the exposition closed and became President Theodore Roosevelts Great White Fleet under Admiral Evans, which toured the globe as evidence of the nations military might.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the ships anchored at Hampton Roads, the exposition provided a campground sufficient to house five thousand troops. Military and "semi-military" men in uniform were admitted for fifty cents for a day&#39;s admission. They were permitted to come and go after that as long as they were encamped at the exposition grounds and drilled regularly on the parade ground. This accounts for many of the 43% of people tallied entering the fair daily who did not pay admission. The organizers felt the troops provided informal entertainment and were an attraction to the exposition.</p><br>
<h3>Other technologies</h3><br>
<p>The railroads put on elaborate displays. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) displayed its entire F.F.V. passenger train. The New York Central (NYC) electric engine on display was part of its Grand Central Station modernization project in New York City. The Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) brought a 23 ft-diameter section of its new East River Tunnel. The same section was later installed underwater as part of the link to the new Penn Station in New York City, with an inscription that it had been displayed at the Jamestown Exposition.</p><br>
<p>Other technology included late-model automobiles, auto-boats, and electric and steam traction engines, each in its highest stage of development.</p><br>
<h3>Negro Building</h3><br>
<p>A controversial feature of the exposition was its "Negro Building," designed by W. Sydney Pittman, which displays showed the progress of African Americans. Richmond lawyer and businessman Giles Beecher Jackson was a leader in the formation of the Negro Department at the Jamestown Exposition and had worked hard to raise funds for the exhibition.</p><br>
<p>The Negro Building exhibit was charged with being a "Jim Crow affair" and criticized by prominent figures like W. E. B. Du Bois who voiced his complaint in Appeal to Reason. However, other Black Americans saw the Negro Building as an achievement. The organizer, Giles B. Jackson, felt that having the exhibition in a separate Negro Hall allowed for a greater variety and completeness of presentation and that it could better highlight the achievements of African Americans. He said a separate building demonstrated black "capacity as a producer and the maker of anything and everything that has been made by other races." For fairgoers sharing his opinion, many of whom were Black middle-class Southerners, the Negro Building represented an achievement that few white Southerners would have thought possible: the building was architecturally elegant, designed and built by blacks, with funds raised by blacks. A series of dioramas by Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, a black woman artist from Philadelphia, comprised the first artwork done by an African American with federal funds.</p><br>
<p>Exhibits from both occupational and classical black educational institutions were represented. While the Exposition was a money-loser and derided by many in the press, the Negro Hall achieved nearly universal praise. It was the only exhibit visited by President Roosevelt in either of his visits. Although most commercial ventures lost money, the branch bank in the Negro Hall, affiliated with a local African-American institution, recorded one of the Exposition&#39;s only profits, doing $75,731.87 in business in the course of the fair.</p><br>
<h2>Results</h2><br>
<p>In conjunction with the first day of Exposition, the USA Post Office issued a series of three commemorative stamps celebrating the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. The 1-cent value portrayed Captain John Smith, the 2-cent value depicts the landing of Captain Smith and colonists at Chesapeake Bay, and the 5-cent depicts Pocahontas.</p><br>
<p>The Exposition closed on December 1, 1907, as a financial failure, losing several million dollars. Attendance had been 3 million, a fraction of the numbers promised by the promoters. But, it had other benefits for the United States, Norfolk, and Hampton Roads.</p><br>
<p>Nearly every Congressman and Senator of prominence had attended the exposition, which showcased Sewell&#39;s Point. Of naval importance in the early American Civil War, it had been virtually forgotten since shortly after its bombardment and returned to Union control in 1862. The admirals in Norfolk urged redevelopment of the exposition site as a Naval Base to use the infrastructure that had been built.</p><br>
<p>Nearly ten years would elapse before the idea, given impetus by World War I, would become a reality. The new Naval Base was aided by the improvements remaining from the Exposition, the strategic location at Sewell&#39;s Point on Hampton Roads, and the large amount of vacant land in the area. The coal piers and storage yards of the Virginian Railway (VGN), built by William N. Page and Henry H. Rogers and completed in 1909, were immediately adjacent to the Exposition site. The well-engineered VGN was a valuable link directly to the bituminous coal of southern West Virginia, which the Navy strongly preferred for its steam-powered ships.</p><br>
<p>On June 28, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson set aside $2.8 million for land purchase and the erection of storehouses and piers for what was to become the Navy Base. Of the 474 acre originally acquired, 367 had been the old Jamestown Exposition grounds. The military property was later expanded considerably. The former Virginian Railway coal piers, land, and an adjacent coal storage facility owned by Norfolk & Western Railway (which merged with the VGN in 1959) were added in the 1960s and 1970s. The base now includes over 4,000 acre.</p><br>
<p>Some of the exposition buildings which were taken over by the Navy remain in use, primarily as admirals quarters for the Navy Base. Thirteen of the state houses can still be seen on Dillingham Boulevard at the Naval Station Norfolk, on what has been called "Admirals Row." The Pennsylvania House, which through the first part of the century served as the Officers Club, later served as the Hampton Roads Naval Museum for many years until it was relocated in 1994 to Nauticus on the harbor in Norfolk. Other surviving state buildings on their original sites are the Georgia, Maryland, Missouri, North Dakota, Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia House, as well as the Bakers Chocolate Company House. The remaining state buildings were moved in 1934, including the Delaware, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Michigan, North Carolina, Rhode Island, and Vermont buildings. The Illinois Building was relocated next to the North Dakota Building. The Kenneth L. Howard House at Dunn, North Carolina is a copy of the North Carolina building.</p><br>
<p>The Lansingburgh Academy was a seminary in Lansingburgh, New York. The seminary was in existence from the late 18th century to 1900, when the building that housed it was leased to the Lansingburgh School District. The building was sold to the school district in 1911. Initially used as a high school, the Lansingburgh Academy was eventually sold to the local library system, it served as the Lansingburgh Branch of the Troy Public Library. The Lansingburgh Academy was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On December 24, 1795, a group of prominent Lansingburgh residents petitioned the Regents of the State of New York for a charter, for the purpose of establishing a seminary of learning to be called The Lansingburgh Academy. They had erected a wooden building on the west side of the village green. This petition was signed by 27 persons. The charter was granted on February 20, 1796, and signed by John Jay. It contained the names of the first sixteen trustees.</p><br>
<p>The trustees selected as the first principal Rev. Chauncey Lee, a noted educator and the author of The American Accomptant. He invented the dollar sign and first used it in a textbook he had published in Lansingburgh.</p><br>
<p>By 1820, it was apparent that the first building was not large enough to serve the growing student body, so a second building of brick was built on the northwest corner of what is now known as Fourth Avenue and 114th Street (then called North Street). It remains almost unchanged in appearance today. The building was constructed on two lots transferred to the trustees of the Academy by a deed dated May 2, 1820.</p><br>
<p>In the new building with its expanded facilities, The Lansingburgh Academy flourished for the next eighty years. The Academy offered such an advanced program of study that students were able to enter college as sophomores after graduating.</p><br>
<p>Many famous people were connected to the Academy. Rev. Dr. Samuel Blatchford, an early president, was later the president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He was the author of a noted Greek grammar, used at the Academy and in many colleges. Ebenezer D. Maltbie was in charge of the Academy when author Herman Melville graduated with a degree in surveying and engineering. Maltbie was the author of a popular book on zoology. Chester A. Arthur, future President of the United States, taught a course in Elements of Law when he resided in Lansingburgh.</p><br>
<p>In 1900 (the year Lansingburgh was annexed by the city of Troy), the trustees of the Academy leased the building with its equipment and a fine library for a period of ten years to the Lansingburgh Free School District No. 1, to be used as a high school. During this time, a 2,500 square foot (230 m) addition was built on the back of the building. On May 27, 1911, the lease expired and the trustees sold the Academy building to the Lansingburgh School District. The district used it as a high school and later as a vocational school. It was used for elementary classes until 1975.</p><br>
<p>In 1975, the Lansingburgh Citizen&#39;s Council was given full access to the building by the school district. The Council soon put together a proposal for the rehabilitation and restoration of the old Lansingburgh Academy so it could be used as an expanded branch of the Troy Public Library, and as a neighborhood arts center. In 1976, the building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Also in 1976, the council, under the auspices of the City of Troy, was awarded a $350,000 grant for this project. Work included a new roof, complete interior and exterior painting, new doors, a handicapped access ramp, new heating and air conditioning systems and extensive interior construction work. The project was completed in 1980 and, after a brief stay at the Methodist Church, the library reopened in its new quarters.</p><br>
<h2>Lansingburgh Branch of the Troy Public Library</h2><br>
<p>In 1938, the Lansingburgh Board of Education voted to give use of a small room in the former Lansingburgh Academy for a branch of the Troy Public Library, and to furnish the necessary heat, light and custodial service. The branch library opened on June 15, 1939, in a room on the second floor. After only five months, the collection had doubled in size and the library had to expand, so it moved from the second floor of the school to the first. In 1952, the library was moved from the two front rooms to the rear of the building with the entrance on Fourth Avenue. In 1999, the Troy Public Library purchased the Lansingburgh Academy building from the Lansingburgh School District. In 2002, renovations were completed that nearly doubled the size of the branch.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium is a public museum in Chicago, Illinois, dedicated to astronomy and astrophysics. It was founded in 1930 by local businessman Max Adler. Located on the northeastern tip of Northerly Island on Lake Michigan, the Adler Planetarium was the first planetarium in the United States. It is part of Chicagos Museum Campus, which includes the John G. Shedd Aquarium and The Field Museum. The Planetariums mission is to inspire exploration and understanding of the universe.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium opened to the public on May 12, 1930. Its architect, Ernest A. Grunsfeld Jr., was awarded the gold medal of the Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects in 1931 for its design. In 1987, it was declared a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The Adler has three theaters, space science exhibitions, including the Gemini 12 space capsule, and a collection of antique scientific instruments and print materials. In addition, the Adler Planetarium hosts the, a research-active public observatory.</p><br>
<p>The planetarium is surrounded by sculptures including: Man Enters the Cosmos by Henry Moore (1980); Spiral Galaxy by John David Mooney (1998); and America&#39;s Courtyard by Ary Perez and Denise Milan.</p><br>
<h2>History of the Adler</h2><br>
<h3>Establishment</h3><br>
<p>In 1913, Oskar von Miller of the Deutsches Museum commissioned Carl Zeiss Works to design a mechanism that projects an image of celestial bodies onto a dome. This was achieved by Walther Bauersfeld and the invention became known as a planetarium when it debuted in 1923. Its popularity spread, and by 1929, there were fifteen planetariums in Germany, two in Italy, one in Russia, and one in Austria. Max Adler, a former executive with Sears, Roebuck & Co. in Chicago, Illinois, had recently retired to focus on philanthropic endeavors, primarily on behalf of musical and Jewish communities. However, after listening to a friend describe a Munich planetarium, Adler decided that a planetarium would fit in well within the emerging Museum Campus in Chicago. Adler visited the Munich planetarium with his cousin, architect Ernest Grunsfeld Jr., whom Adler commissioned to design the Chicago structure. He also learned about a sale of astronomical instruments and antiques by W. M. Mensing in Amsterdam, which he purchased the following year. The Mensing Collection became the focus of the Astronomical Museum. Adler offered $500,000 in 1928 for the construction of the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere.</p><br>
<p>The planetarium was originally considered for the part of the Museum of Science and Industry, an endeavor led by Adlers brother-in-law Julius Rosenwald. Rosenwald was determined to convert the former Palace of Fine Arts of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition into a museum but was struggling to manage the many required renovations.</p><br>
<p>The delays caused Adler to look elsewhere for a location. The South Park Commissioners, the precursor to the Chicago Park District, had just completed Northerly Island, the first of five intended (but otherwise never executed) recreational islands that were to be consistent with Daniel Burnhams 1909 Plan of Chicago. The Adler Planetarium and Astronomical Museum opened on Adlers birthday, May 12, 1930. The Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects awarded Grunsfield a gold medal for his design. The planetarium hosted the 44th meeting of the American Astronomical Society later that year.</p><br>
<h3>Timeline</h3><br>
<p>1923 – Walther Bauersfeld, scientific director of the firm of Carl Zeiss in Jena, Germany, designs an optical projection device that effectively creates the illusion of a night sky. With this innovation, the modern planetarium is born.</p><br>
<p>1928 – Max Adler and architect Ernest Grunsfeld travel to Germany. Adler is so impressed by the modern planetarium that he donates funds to construct the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere.1930 – Max Adler purchases the collection of A. W. Mensing at an auction in Amsterdam. This collection of antique scientific instruments provided the foundation for Adlers collection. The Adler Planetarium opened to the public on Max Adlers birthday, May 12. Phillip Fox, Ph.D., a professor of astronomy at Northwestern University, is appointed the Planetarium&#39;s first director.</p><br>
<p>1933 – The Century of Progress Exposition takes place on what is now the Museum Campus.</p><br>
<p>1941 – Philip Fox is deployed to the Army; Assistant Director Maude Bennot is appointed acting director of the Planetarium during his absence.</p><br>
<p>1952 – Max Adler dies.</p><br>
<p>1967 – The board of trustees is created to share in the responsibilities and management of the Adler Planetarium with the commissioners of the Chicago Park District. The Adler Planetarium refurbishes the building and replaces the original Zeiss projector with a new Mark VI Zeiss unit.</p><br>
<p>1973 – A new underground expansion opens to the public on May 12, 1973, Adler Planetarium&#39;s 43rd birthday.</p><br>
<p>1976 – The Board of Trustees assumes full management responsibility for the planetarium but continues to receive support from the Chicago Park District.</p><br>
<p>1977 – The Doane Observatory opens.</p><br>
<p>1991 – The museum unveils the results of the $6.5 million renovation project. After 23 years of leadership, Dr. Joseph M. Chamberlain retires.</p><br>
<p>1999 – The 60,000 square foot Sky Pavilion, designed by Lohan Associates of Chicago, opens to the public. The addition features four new exhibition galleries, including the historic Atwood Sphere and the Definiti (formerly StarRider) Theater.</p><br>
<p>2005 – Retired NASA Astronaut James A. Lovell Jr. serves as chairman of Adler&#39;s 75th-anniversary celebration.</p><br>
<p>2007 – The Adler unveils its new Space Visualization Laboratory, bringing the latest images of space science to the public.</p><br>
<p>2010 – The Adler begins transformation of the historic Sky Theater. The renamed Grainger Sky Theater opened in May 2011. At the time, the Grainger was the most technologically advanced dome theater in the world. Thomas Roszak Architecture designed the Clark Family Welcome Gallery using an LED-lit fabric and aluminum structure that includes educational interactive material projected on the fabric walls.</p><br>
<p>2012 – Paul H. Knappenberger Jr. Ph.D., announces his retirement after 21 years of service.</p><br>
<p>2013 – The Board of Trustees elects astrophysicist and academic leader Michelle B. Larson, Ph.D., as president and CEO. Dr. Larson becomes the Adler&#39;s ninth leader and the first female president.</p><br>
<p>2015 – Major upgrade of the Doane Observatory completed.</p><br>
<h2>Research</h2><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium&#39;s Astronomy department and Webster Institute for the History of Astronomy conduct and publish research for both the scientific community as well as the general public.</p><br>
<p>Adler astronomers possess expertise in many areas of astronomy as well as other closely related science fields. Their studies include planetary geology, star formation, gamma-rays, and telescope observing.</p><br>
<p>Originally founded as the Webster Institute for the History of Astronomy, the Collections department cares for, studies, and interprets the planetarium collections. Since the opening of the Adler, the collection has grown to approximately 8,000 objects, books, works on paper, archival collections, paintings, and photographs. The Adler hosts archives from Derek J. de Solla Price, Michael J. Crowe, and Jim Lovell, as well as the largest collection of historic scientific instruments in the Western Hemisphere.</p><br>
<p>The Space Visualization Laboratory (SVL) was inaugurated in 2007 to virtually explore the Universe.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Citizen Science Department is also the USA headquarters of The Zooniverse, a citizen science platform and a global collaboration across several institutions that design and build citizen science projects. As of early 2014, the Zooniverse has engaged more than 1.1 million online volunteers as active scientists by discovering planets, mapping the surface of Mars, and detecting solar flares.</p><br>
<p>Far Horizons is the Adler&#39;s high-altitude balloon program. Participants design, build, and launch experiments flown to heights above 100,000 ft on high-altitude balloons. The program offers real-world opportunities for students and the community to participate in science, mathematics, physics, and engineering challenges.</p><br>
<p>Opened in 1977, the Doane Observatory is the largest aperture telescope available to the public in the Chicago area. With its 20 in diameter mirror, the Doane can gather over 5,000 times more light than an unaided human eye, allowing guests to see celestial objects like the Moon, planets, stars, and galaxies that are trillions of kilometers, if not many light years, away. The original telescope, a 16 in Cassegrain reflecting telescope built by the Adler optical and machine shop staff, was retired in 1987 and replaced with the current telescope.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the Adler Planetarium undertook the first major renovation of the Doane Observatory. Completed in 2015, renovations included the addition of an indoor classroom, a restroom, accessible entry ramps, and telescope and technology upgrades.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium is a member institution of the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope project.</p><br>
<h2>Theaters</h2><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium features three domed theaters. The largest, the Grainger Sky Theater, has a dome that measures 21 m in diameter. In 2008, when funding for an advanced projection system was being debated in Congress, politician John McCain infamously characterized the upgrade as a new "overhead projector".</p><br>
<h2>Programs</h2><br>
<p>Adler After Dark, the Adler Planetariums 21+ evening event, was voted "Best After Hours Event" of 2013 by the Chicago Reader and "Best Date Night" by Chicago Parent. Guests at Adler After Dark have open museum access, themed programs, sky shows and views of the Chicago skyline. Astro Overnights&#39; give families a chance to spend a night under the stars at the Adler. Guests have open museum access, a sky show and educational programming. The Astronomy Department at the Adler presents current topics in astronomy through a quarterly lecture series.</p><br>
<p>The Adler hosts quarterly Hack Days, intended to encourage software developers, designers, scientists, engineers, artists and people who just like to create and build, to work together to solve problems. Participants at the Adlers summer camps build rockets, launch high-altitude balloons, and explore the edge of space. The Adlers hands-on summer camps are designed for children ages 5–14.</p><br>
<p>Lucy the Elephant is a six-story elephant-shaped wood frame and tin clad building, constructed in 1882 by James V. Lafferty in Margate City, New Jersey. Lucy was built with the purpose of promoting real estate sales and attracting tourists to the area. Today, Lucy remains the oldest surviving roadside tourist attraction in America.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>1882–1899</h3><br>
<h4>Patenting and construction</h4><br>
<p>On December 5, 1882, the USA Patent Office granted James V. Lafferty Patent #268503, giving him the exclusive right to make, use or sell an "animal-shaped building" for a duration of seventeen years. Lafferty funded the design and construction of Lucy at South Atlantic City, now called Margate. He employed Philadelphia architects William Free and J. Mason Kirby for the design of this example of novelty architecture. Lucy was modeled after Jumbo, the famous elephant with Barnum and Bailey&#39;s Greatest Show on Earth, and constructed at a cost of $25,000 - $38,000.</p><br>
<p>Initially named "Elephant Bazaar", the structure stands at 65 feet (19.7 m) in height, 60 feet (18.3 m) in length, and 18 feet (5.5 m) in width and weighs about 90 tons. It is currently listed as the 12th tallest statue in the United States. Lucy was constructed with nearly one million pieces of wood, and required 200 kegs of nails, 4 tons of bolts and iron bars; 12,000 square feet of tin covers the exterior. There are 22 windows placed throughout the structure.</p><br>
<h4>Early use and sale</h4><br>
<p>Originally, Lafferty brought potential real estate customers to view parcels of land from Lucys howdah (carriage). The howdah offers unique views of Margate, Atlantic Citys skyline, the beach, and the Atlantic Ocean and it serves as an observation deck for modern day visitors during tours.</p><br>
<p>The structure was sold to Anton Gertzen of Philadelphia in 1887 and remained in his family until 1970. Antons daughter-in-law, Sophia Gertzen, reportedly dubbed the structure "Lucy the Elephant" in 1902. The shape of Lucys head is characteristic of an Asian elephant, but only males have tusks. Initially, the elephant was referred to as a male, but eventually became commonly known as a female.</p><br>
<h3>1900–1999</h3><br>
<p>Through the first half of the 20th century, Lucy served as a restaurant, business office, cottage, and tavern (the last closed by Prohibition). The building was depicted on many souvenir postcards, often referred to as "The Elephant Hotel of Atlantic City." (The actual hotel was in a nearby building, not inside the elephant.)</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s, Lucy had fallen into disrepair and was scheduled for demolition. In 1969, Edwin T. Carpenter and others formed the Margate Civic Association, which later became the Save Lucy Committee under Josephine Harron and Sylvia Carpenter. They were given a 30-day deadline to move the edifice or pay for its demolition. Lucy was spared through various fund-raising events, most notably a door-to-door canvassing campaign by volunteers.</p><br>
<p>On July 20, 1970, Lucy was moved to a city-owned lot, located about 100 yards away. The move took about seven hours and Lucy remained closed to the public for repairs until 1974. The restoration entailed supporting Lucys original wooden frame with new steel and replacing the howdah. A plug of green glass was set into the howdah platform to refract light into Lucys interior.</p><br>
<p>In 1971, Lucy was added to both the NJRHP (New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the NRHP (National Register of Historic Places).</p><br>
<p>In 1976, Lucy was designated a National Historic Landmark during the United States Bicentennial celebration.</p><br>
<h3>2000–present</h3><br>
<p>Lucys birthday is commemorated each year on July 20, which includes a fundraising event and celebration of childrens games and much fanfare.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, Lucy was struck by lightning, blackening the tips of the tusks. In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy made landfall near Margate. Lucy remained unscathed, although the surge reached the building&#39;s toes and a small booth in the parking lot was blown over.</p><br>
<p>On July 23, 2016, Lucys staff announced the buildings fake candidacy for President of the United States at a celebration for her 135th birthday. In 2016, Lucy had 135,000 visitors at the site, 35,000 of whom took the guided tour.</p><br>
<p>On February 27, 2020, Lucy began allowing overnight stays. Lucy was listed on Airbnb for $138 per night on March 17, 18 and 19, 2020. It marked the first time Lucy had been inhabited by humans since it was rented as a home in the early 1900s.</p><br>
<p>In August 2021, the Save Lucy Committee announced a plan to repair and replace the metal exterior skin after receiving a $500,000 grant from the National Park Service. The grant was based on results of a 2021 inspection that revealed that more than half of Lucy&#39;s metal skin had degraded beyond repair. The project was partially funded by a grant from the Preserve New Jersey Preservation Fund administered by the New Jersey Historic Trust. Lucy temporarily closed on September 20, 2021, with a reopening date set for Memorial Day 2022. After delays, Lucy reopened on December 28, 2022. The overall cost of the restoration was $2.4 million, a substantial increase from initial projections.</p><br>
<p>On January 5, 2023, the City of Margate approved a plan to create a visitors center on Lucys existing site. The proposed 2-story building is designed to include a retail area, information and displays, meeting spaces, and restrooms. The new structure will be located on the site of the existing gift shop and would be elevated to meet current flood codes.</p><br>
<p>In 2023, Lucy booked a new record high of 42,267 tours, surpassing the previous record set in 2018.</p><br>
<p>On August 12, 2024, a $500,000 federal grant to fund the restoration of Lucy&#39;s interior spaces was announced.</p><br>
<h2>Lucy In popular culture</h2><br>
<h3>Movies</h3><br>
<p>In 1972, Lucy appeared in the movie The King of Marvin Gardens, starring Jack Nicholson and Bruce Dern.</p><br>
<p>In 1980, Lucy can be briefly seen in the opening of the Oscar nominated film, Atlantic City, starring Burt Lancaster and Susan Sarandon.</p><br>
<p>In 1983, Lucy is shown on a postcard with a picture in the opening credits of the film, National Lampoon&#39;s Vacation.</p><br>
<p>An ice cream shop with a living area above shaped like Lucy appears in the 1991 Disney film The Rocketeer, although the film takes place in Southern California.</p><br>
<p>The Jardin the Paris Elephant, a real-life large elephant structure inspired by “Elephantine Colossus”, (a larger version of Lucy, built by Lafferty in 1885 on Coney Island), is featured as the location of the boudoir of Nicole Kidman&#39;s character in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge!</p><br>
<p>In 2015, Lucy was featured in the opening credits of the film Vacation, similar to the original 1983 film, National Lampoon&#39;s Vacation.</p><br>
<h3>Television</h3><br>
<p>In 1979, Lucy appeared in the intro to the short-lived CBS drama series Big Shamus, Little Shamus which takes place in Atlantic City.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, Lucy appeared on an episode of Mister Rogers&#39; Neighborhood, in which Fred Rogers took a short tour of Lucy.</p><br>
<p>In November 2006, the building was prominently featured in an advertisement for Proformance Insurance.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, the History Channel television series Weird USA featured Lucy in an episode.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, Lucy was featured in an episode of Life After People, which illustrated how the environment would take over the structure without people to maintain Lucy.</p><br>
<p>In a 2011 episode of Boardwalk Empire, Agent Van Alden mentions "a hotel shaped like an elephant" among the local attractions. Lucy is also briefly seen in the second-season episode "Gimcrack & Bunkum".</p><br>
<p>On April 2, 2014, Lucy appeared in a clip on an episode of Strange Inheritance, which mainly featured the World&#39;s tallest thermometer, another well-known roadside attraction.</p><br>
<p>On June 14, 2014, The Travel Channel&#39;s Monumental Mysteries featured Lucy the Elephant in an episode.</p><br>
<p>The 2017 movie The Dunning Man shows footage of the effort to preserve the building.</p><br>
<p>In 2021, Lucy appeared in an episode of the PBS series Drive By History which described her cultural significance in American history.</p><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>2020: A song named "Lucy The Elephant" was written, created and performed by Dan Walsh and Patty Blee.</p><br>
<h3>Digital / Print media</h3><br>
<p>2012: Lucy was featured in the book, Stay Close by Harlan Coben.</p><br>
<p>April 18, 2015: Lucy was featured in the Bill Griffith daily comic strip "Zippy the Pinhead".</p><br>
<p>July, 2022: Big Potato Games announced that Lucy will be among 49 popular national roadside attractions featured in "Zillionaires: Road Trip USA", its new Monopoly style family board game.</p><br>
<p>May, 2024: In a USA Today 10 Best Poll, Lucy was voted #1 on the 2024 list of 10 must-see roadside attractions across the country.</p><br>
<h2>Other structures by Lafferty</h2><br>
<h3>Elephantine Colossus (1885–1896)</h3><br>
<p>The Elephantine Colossus or Elephant Hotel, at Coney Island amusement park in Brooklyn, New York, stood 122 feet (37.2 m) tall, approximately twice the size of Lucy, with seven floors of rooms, and legs 60 feet in circumference. With the exception of the number and relative size of the windows, and the design of the howdah, its exterior was a nearly exact scaled-up replication of Lucy. It held a cigar store in one leg and a diorama in another, hotel rooms within the elephant proper, and an observation area at the top with panoramic sea views. It burned down in 1896.</p><br>
<h3>Light of Asia (1884–1900)</h3><br>
<p>Light of Asia (dubbed Old Jumbo by locals) opened in Cape May in 1884, and was a slightly smaller version of Lucy. It was not successful and was torn down within 16 years. Lafferty was not directly involved with the construction but granted patent rights to Theodore M. Rieger, a real estate developer like himself, who sought to do for Cape May what Lafferty did with Lucy for Atlantic City It is unclear whether the Light of Asia matched the quality of the other buildings; the only known surviving photo of Light of Asia appears to have been taken while still under construction with no metal skin and an incomplete head, and with yet another different howdah design. A video presented to visitors inside Lucy in 2009 includes that same photo with the narration describing it as Cape May&#39;s "inferior rendition" of Lucy.</p><br>
<h3>Prospectus for 1893 World&#39;s Columbian Exposition</h3><br>
<p>A prospectus was published in 1892 by Kirby (while Lafferty still owned the patent) for a fourth building, even larger than Elephantine Colossus and with a moving trunk, eyeballs, ears and tail as well as a Calliope in the throat, to be built for the 1893 World&#39;s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. No actual construction was ever attempted.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the City and Diocese of Washington, commonly known as Washington National Cathedral or National Cathedral, is an American cathedral of the Episcopal Church. The cathedral is located in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The structure is of Neo-Gothic design closely modeled on English Gothic style of the late fourteenth century. It is the second-largest church building in the United States, and the third-tallest building in Washington, D.C. The cathedral is the seat of both the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church and the bishop of the Diocese of Washington. Over 270,000 people visit the structure annually.</p><br>
<p>The Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation, under the first seven Bishops of Washington, erected the cathedral under a charter passed by the United States Congress on January 6, 1893. Construction began on September 29, 1907, when the foundation stone was laid in the presence of President Theodore Roosevelt and a crowd of more than 20,000, and ended 83 years later when the "final finial" was placed in the presence of President George H. W. Bush on September 29, 1990. Decorative and restorative work, particularly of damage from a nearby earthquake in 2011, is ongoing The Foundation is the legal entity of which all institutions on the Cathedral Close are a part; its corporate staff provides services for the institutions to help enable their missions, conducts work of the Foundation itself that is not done by the other entities, and serves as staff for the board of trustees.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral stands at Massachusetts and Wisconsin Avenues in the northwest quadrant of Washington. It is an associate member of the recently organized inter-denominational Washington Theological Consortium. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, it was ranked third on the List of America&#39;s Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>In 1792, Pierre LEnfants "Plan of the Federal City" specified a site for a "great church for national purposes". However he defined it as non-sectarian and nondenominational. Alexander Hamilton modified LEnfants plan and eliminated the "church" and several other proposed monuments and that plan was never reproduced. The working plan for the new city was subsequently produced by Andrew Ellicott and it varied in many respects from LEnfants. although the essence remained. The National Portrait Gallery now occupies that site.</p><br>
<p>In 1891, a meeting was held to begin plans for an Episcopal cathedral in Washington. On January 6, 1893, the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation of the District of Columbia was granted a charter from Congress to establish the cathedral. The 52nd United States Congress declared in the act to incorporate the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation of the District of Columbia that the "said corporation is hereby empowered to establish and maintain within the District of Columbia a cathedral and institutions of learning for the promotion of religion and education and charity." The commanding site on Mount Saint Alban was chosen. Henry Yates Satterlee, first Episcopal bishop of the Diocese of Washington, chose George Frederick Bodley, Britain&#39;s leading Anglican church architect, as the head architect. Henry Vaughan was selected supervising architect.</p><br>
<p>Construction started on September 29, 1907, with a ceremonial address by President Theodore Roosevelt and the laying of the cornerstone. In 1912, Bethlehem Chapel opened for services in the unfinished cathedral, which have continued daily ever since. When construction of the cathedral resumed after a brief hiatus for World War I, both Bodley and Vaughan had died. Gen. John J. Pershing led fundraising efforts for the church after World War I. American architect Philip Hubert Frohman took over the design of the cathedral and was thenceforth designated the principal architect. Funding for Washington National Cathedral has come entirely from private sources. Maintenance and upkeep continue to rely entirely upon private support.</p><br>
<p>National Cathedral under construction, Washington, D.C. LCCN2016890226.jpg</p><br>
<p>National Cathedral under construction, Washington, D.C. LCCN2016890227.jpg</p><br>
<p>National Cathedral under construction, Washington, D.C. LCCN2016890228.jpg</p><br>
<p>View of National Cathedral under construction, Washington, D.C. LCCN2016890225.jpg</p><br>
<h3>National role</h3><br>
<p>From its earliest days, the cathedral has been promoted as more than simply an Episcopal cathedral. Planners hoped it would play a role similar to Westminster Abbey. They wanted it to be a national shrine and a venue for great services. For much of the cathedral&#39;s history, this was captured in the phrase "a house of prayer for all people." In more recent times the phrases "national house of prayer" and "spiritual home for the nation" have been used. The cathedral has achieved this status simply by offering itself and being accepted by religious and political leaders as playing this role.</p><br>
<p>Its initial charter was similar to those granted to American University, The Catholic University of America, and other not-for-profit entities founded in the District of Columbia. Contrary to popular misconception, the government has not designated it as a national house of prayer.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, monthly services were held there "on behalf of a united people in a time of emergency." Before and since, the structure has hosted other major events, both religious and secular, that have drawn the attention of the American people, as well as tourists from around the world.</p><br>
<h2>Major events</h2><br>
<h3>Major services</h3><br>
<p>State funerals for four American presidents have been held at the cathedral:</p><br>
<p>34th President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1969): lay in repose at the cathedral before lying in state</p><br>
<p>40th President Ronald Reagan (2004)</p><br>
<p>38th President Gerald Ford (2007)</p><br>
<p>41st President George H. W. Bush (2018)</p><br>
<p>Memorial services were also held at the cathedral for the following presidents:</p><br>
<p>29th President Warren G. Harding</p><br>
<p>27th President William Howard Taft</p><br>
<p>30th President Calvin Coolidge</p><br>
<p>33rd President Harry S. Truman</p><br>
<p>37th President Richard Nixon</p><br>
<p>Presidential prayer services were held the day after the inaugurations for:</p><br>
<p>32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt&#39;s second inauguration in January 1937</p><br>
<p>40th President Ronald Reagan&#39;s second inauguration in 1985</p><br>
<p>41st President George H. W. Bush&#39;s inauguration in 1989</p><br>
<p>43rd President George W. Bush&#39;s first and second inaugurations in 2001 and 2005</p><br>
<p>44th President Barack Obama&#39;s first and second inaugurations in 2009 and 2013</p><br>
<p>45th President Donald Trump&#39;s inauguration in 2017</p><br>
<p>46th President Joe Biden&#39;s inauguration in 2021</p><br>
<p>Other events have included:</p><br>
<p>Funeral for former first lady Edith Wilson (1961)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt (1962)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service and interment of Helen Keller (1968)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for the casualties of the Vietnam War on November 14, 1982</p><br>
<p>Funeral for Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall on January 29, 1993</p><br>
<p>Public funeral for Chief of Naval Operations, United States Navy, Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda (1996)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for Secretary of Commerce Ronald Brown (1996)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for USA Ambassador to France Pamela Harriman (1997)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales (September 6, 1997)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for The Washington Post newspaper publisher Katharine Graham (2001)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for the victims of the September 11, 2001, attacks</p><br>
<p>Special evensong for the victims of the Virginia Tech shooting</p><br>
<p>Funeral for educator and national civil rights leader Dorothy Height (2010)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for NASA astronaut and first person on the Moon Neil Armstrong (2012)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for Senator Daniel Inouye of Hawaii, President Pro Tempore of the Senate, and Medal of Honor recipient (2012)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for Charles Colson, founder of Prison Fellowship (2012)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for former South African President and anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela (2014)</p><br>
<p>Interfaith service of Prayer and Remembrance: The Fifteenth Anniversary of the September 11, 2001, attacks, Sunday September 11, 2016</p><br>
<p>March for Our Lives Prayer Vigil: A vigil for "activists, students and pilgrims" participating in the March for Our Lives anti-gun violence rally in Washington, D.C. and other cities, Friday March 23, 2018</p><br>
<p>Funeral for USA Senator John McCain of Arizona (September 1, 2018)</p><br>
<p>Service of Thanksgiving and Remembrance for Matthew Shepard (October 26, 2018).</p><br>
<p>Funeral for USA Army General (Ret.), Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and former Secretary of State Colin Powell (November 5, 2021).</p><br>
<p>Funeral for USA Senator Bob Dole of Kansas (December 10, 2021)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for former Secretary of State and diplomat Madeleine Albright (April 27, 2022)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service following the death of Queen Elizabeth II (September 21, 2022)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O&#39;Connor (Dec. 19, 2023)</p><br>
<p>It was from Washington National Cathedral&#39;s "Canterbury Pulpit" that Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his final Sunday sermon on March 31, 1968, just 4 days before his assassination on April 4, 1968. A memorial service for King was held at the cathedral later the same week.</p><br>
<h3>2011 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>The cathedral was damaged in August 2011 during the Virginia earthquake. Finial stones on several pinnacles broke off, and several pinnacles twisted out of alignment or collapsed entirely. Some gargoyles and other carvings were damaged, and a hole was punched through the metal-clad roof by falling masonry. Cracks also appeared in the flying buttresses surrounding the apse. Inside, initial inspections revealed less damage, with some mortar joints loose or falling out. The cathedral, which had no earthquake insurance, struggled to cope with the cost of the damage.</p><br>
<p>Washington National Cathedral closed from August 24 to November 7, 2011, At that time, estimates of the cost of the damage were about $25 million.</p><br>
<p>Identifying the full extent of the damage and construction planning and studies over the next two years consumed another $2.5 million. In 2011, the cathedral received a $700,000 preservation work matching grant from the Save America&#39;s Treasures program, a public-private partnership operated by the nonprofit National Trust for Historic Preservation. The program, which is federally funded, required the cathedral to match the grant dollar-for-dollar with private funds and use the money solely for preservation work.</p><br>
<p>Although fundraising to repair the damage began soon after the earthquake, it took the cathedral three years to raise the $15 million to complete the first phase of repairs. In August 2013, the cost of the repairs was re-estimated at $26 million. About $10 million had already been raised by this date to pay for the repairs, half of that coming from the Lilly Endowment. The cathedral began charging a $10 admission fee for tourists in January 2014, and started renting out its worship and other spaces to outside groups to raise cash. The cathedral also transformed the Herb Cottage (its old baptistry building adjacent to the cathedral) into a for-profit coffeehouse operated by the Open City café chain.</p><br>
<p>Phase I of the restoration, which cost $10 million,</p><br>
<p>In June 2015, Washington National Cathedral leaders said the church needed $200 million, which would both complete repairs and expand its endowment to give the cathedral financial stability. The cathedral began working on a capital fundraising campaign, which The New York Times said was one of the largest ever by an American religious institution, to begin in 2018 or 2019. Hall said that the cathedral also planned to reopen the former College of Preachers and its Center for Prayer and Pilgrimage (a space on the cathedral&#39;s crypt level dedicated to prayer, meditation, and devotional practice). After three years of deficit spending, however, the cathedral also announced additional cuts to music programs to balance its budget.</p><br>
<p>In September 2022, the Cathedral launched a $150 million comprehensive campaign, A Cathedral for the Future, which includes a target to raise all necessary funds to complete the remaining earthquake repairs, estimated at around $24 million. Once full funding is acquired, project managers estimate it will take several years to complete, given the complexity of the work and the great heights and weather conditions. The Cathedral hopes to complete all earthquake repairs by 2030.</p><br>
<h3>Lee-Jackson stained glass windows</h3><br>
<p>In June 2016, after an examination by a five-person task force, it was announced that two Confederate battle flag images would be removed from stained glass windows commemorating the lives of Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson. The windows were installed in 1953 after lobbying by the United Daughters of the Confederacy. In its report, the task force wrote that it "is unanimous in its decision that the windows provide a catalyst for honest discussions about race and the legacy of slavery and for addressing the uncomfortable and too often avoided issues of race in America. Moreover, the windows serve as a profound witness to the cathedral&#39;s own complex history in relationship to race."</p><br>
<p>On September 6, 2017, the cathedral, in a statement signed by the Right Rev. Mariann Edgar Budde, bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Washington, the Very Rev. Randolph Marshall Hollerith, dean of the cathedral, and John Donoghue, chair of the cathedral chapter, announced its decision to deconsecrate and remove the stained glass windows honoring Lee and Jackson. The Robert E. Lee window was subsequently loaned to the Smithsonian Institution&#39;s National Museum of African American History and Culture for an exhibit on the legacy of Reconstruction.</p><br>
<p>On September 23, 2023, the "Now and Forever" Windows were unveiled and dedicated at the Cathedral. The dedication service featured remarks from world-renowned visual artist and window designer Kerry James Marshall, and a special reading of American Song by poet Elizabeth Alexander.</p><br>
<h2>Financial challenges and recent success</h2><br>
<p>In January 2003, Nathan D. Baxter, dean of the cathedral, announced his retirement effective from June 30, 2003. Baxter had led the cathedral since 1991. After an 18-month search, Samuel T. Lloyd III was named dean and began his tenure on April 23, 2005. Using a $15 million bequest the cathedral received in 2000, Lloyd rapidly expanded the cathedrals programming. Meanwhile, the cathedral deferred maintenance and declined to make needed repairs. In early 2008, the National Cathedral Association, the churchs fundraising donor network, was disbanded after cathedral leaders concluded that the building was "finished" and it was no longer necessary to raise significant funds for construction.</p><br>
<p>The 2008–2009 Great Recession hit the cathedral hard. By June 2010, the cathedral cut its budget from $27 million to $13 million, outsourced the operation of its gift shop, shut its greenhouse, cancelled its plans to replace the Skinner organ in the sanctuary, and ceased operation of the College of Preachers that had provided Episcopal clergy nationwide with continuing theological education. The cathedral also laid off 100 of its 170 staff members, including its art conservator and its liturgist (who researched and advocated the use of liturgies at the cathedral). It also significantly cut back on programming, music performances, and classes. To help stabilize its finances, the cathedral began an $11 million fundraising campaign and used $2.5 million of its $50 million endowment to plug budget holes. The National Cathedral Association was recreated as well.</p><br>
<p>In June 2010, the cathedral announced that it was exploring the sale of its rare book collection, the value of which was estimated to be several million dollars. It sold a number of books to a private collector in 2011 for $857,000 and in 2013 donated most of the remaining collection to Virginia Theological Seminary.</p><br>
<p>As the economic downturn continued, a report by cathedral staff identified $30 million in needed maintenance and repairs. Among the problems were cracked and missing mortar in the oldest sections of the building; broken HVAC, mechanical, and plumbing systems throughout the structure; extensive preservation needs; and a main organ in disrepair. Repointing the building was estimated to cost at least $5 million, while organ repair was set at $15 million.</p><br>
<p>The Very Rev. Randolph Marshall Hollerith was named the 11th dean of the Cathedral on May 23, 2016 and began his tenure on Aug. 1, 2016. He was installed in November, 2016. In 2019, he launched the Cathedral&#39;s five-year Strategic Plan to focus on Welcoming, Deepening, Convening and Serving. In order to carry out the mission priorities of the five-year plan, the Cathedral launched a $150 million A Cathedral for the Future comprehensive campaign; at its public launch in 2022, the campaign had already surpassed $115 million. The multifaceted campaign aims to secure total funding to complete earthquake repairs, fully renovate the 1938 Ernest M. Skinner & Son pipe organ, replace the audio system in the Cathedral nave, and sustain all operations over a five-year period. A centerpiece of the campaign is the new Virginia Mae Center (formerly known as the College of Preachers), which underwent a $24 million renovation to reopen as a fully accessible retreat house and conference center, and to serve as a hub of operations for the newly launched Cathedral College of Faith & Culture.</p><br>
<p>Hollerith also navigated the Cathedral through dramatic changes and a pivot to digital-first operations when the COVID-19 pandemic closed the Cathedrals doors for nearly 18 months. From March 2020 through July 2021, all Cathedral services were online, with only minimal clergy and musicians inside the Cathedral. The Cathedrals first Easter service during COVID, in 2020, attracted more than 50,000 online viewers, and the Cathedral now counts a virtual congregation that spans six continents, with 3,000-5,000 viewers joining online for Sunday worship services every week.</p><br>
<p>Since 2016, under Hollerith&#39;s leadership and financial stewardship, the Cathedral has stabilized its finances, reporting consecutive annual operating surpluses in its audited financial statements, and moving forward with some large capital projects including the renovation and opening of the Virginia Mae Center, commencement of the great organ renovation, and continued earthquake repairs.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The cathedral&#39;s final design shows a mix of influences from the various Gothic architectural styles of the Middle Ages, identifiable in its pointed arches, flying buttresses, a variety of ceiling vaulting, stained-glass windows and carved decorations in stone, and by its three similar towers, two on the west front and one surmounting the crossing.</p><br>
<p>The structure consists of a long, narrow rectangular mass formed by a nine-bay nave with wide side aisles and a five-bay chancel, intersected by a six-bay transept. Above the crossing, rising above the ground, is the Gloria in Excelsis Tower; its top, at above sea level, is the highest point in Washington. The Pilgrim Observation Gallery—which occupies a space about 3/4ths of the way up in the west-end towers—provides sweeping views of the city. Unique in North America, the central tower has two full sets of bells—a 53-bell carillon and a 10-bell peal for change ringing; the change bells are rung by members of the Washington Ringing Society. The cathedral sits on a landscaped 57 acre plot on Mount Saint Alban. The one-story porch projecting from the south transept has a large portal with a carved tympanum. This portal is approached by the Pilgrim Steps, a long flight of steps 40 ft wide.</p><br>
<p>Most of the building is constructed using a buff-colored Indiana limestone over a traditional masonry core. Structural, load-bearing steel is limited to the roof&#39;s trusses (traditionally built of timber); concrete is used significantly in the support structures for bells of the central tower, and the floors in the west towers.</p><br>
<p>The pulpit was carved out of stones from Canterbury Cathedral; Glastonbury Abbey provided stone for the bishops formal seat, the cathedra. The high altar, the Jerusalem Altar, is made from stones quarried at Solomons Quarry near Jerusalem, reputedly where the stones for Solomon&#39;s Temple were quarried. In the floor directly in front of that altar are set ten stones from the Chapel of Moses on Mount Sinai, representing the Ten Commandments as a foundation for the Jerusalem Altar.</p><br>
<p>There are many other works of art including over two hundred stained glass windows, the most familiar of which may be the Space Window, honoring mankinds landing on the Moon, which includes a fragment of lunar rock at its center; the rock was presented at the dedication service on July 21, 1974, the fifth anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. Extensive wrought iron adorns the building, much of it the work of Samuel Yellin. A substantial gate of forged iron and carbon steel by Albert Paley was installed on the north side of the crypt level in 2008. Intricate woodcarving, wall-sized murals and mosaics, and monumental cast bronze gates can also be found. Most of the interior decorative elements have Christian symbolism, in reference to the churchs Episcopal roots, but the cathedral is filled with memorials to persons or events of national significance: statues of Washington and Lincoln, state seals embedded in the marble floor of the narthex, state flags that hang along the nave, stained glass commemorating events like the Lewis and Clark expedition and the raising of the American flag at Iwo Jima.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral was built with several intentional "flaws" in keeping with an apocryphal medieval custom that sought to illustrate that only God can be perfect. Artistically speaking, these flaws (which often come in the form of intentional asymmetries) draw the observer&#39;s focus to the sacred geometry as well as compensate for visual distortions, a practice that has been used since the Pyramids and the Parthenon. The architects designed the crypt chapels in Norman, Romanesque, and Transitional styles predating the Gothic, as though the cathedral had been built as a successor to earlier churches, a common occurrence in European cathedrals.</p><br>
<p>Numerous grotesques and gargoyles adorn the exterior, most of them designed by the carvers; one of the more famous of these is a caricature of then-master carver Roger Morigi on the north exterior of the nave. There were also two competitions held for the public to provide designs to supplement those of the carvers. The second of these produced the famous Darth Vader grotesque which is high on the northwest tower, sculpted by Jay Hall Carpenter and carved by Patrick J. Plunkett.</p><br>
<p>The west facade follows an iconographic program of Creation rather than that of the Last Judgement as was traditional in medieval churches. All of the sculptural work was designed by Frederick Hart and features tympanum carvings of the creation of the Sun and Moon over the outer doors and the creation of man over the center. Hart also sculpted the three statues of Adam and Saints Peter and Paul. The west doors are cast bronze rather than wrought iron. The west rose window, often used as a trademark of the cathedral, was designed by Rowan LeCompte and is an abstract depiction of the creation of light. LeCompte, who also designed the clerestory windows and the mosaics in the Resurrection Chapel, chose a nonrepresentational design because he feared that a figural window could fail to be seen adequately from the great distance to the nave.</p><br>
<h3>Architects</h3><br>
<p>The cathedrals master plan was designed by George Frederick Bodley (founder of Watts & Co.), a highly regarded British Gothic Revival architect of the late-19th and early-20th centuries, and was influenced by Canterbury. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. contributed a landscaping plan for the cathedral close and Nellie B. Allen designed a knot garden for the Bishops Garden. After Bodley died in 1907, his partner Henry Vaughan revised the original design, but work stopped during World War I and Vaughan died in 1917.</p><br>
<p>When work resumed after the war, the chapter hired Boston architecture firm Frohman, Robb and Little to execute the building. Philip Hubert Frohman, who had designed his first fully functional home at age 14 and received his architectural degree at age 16, and his partners worked to perfect Bodleys vision, adding the carillon section of the central tower, enlarging the west façade, and making numerous smaller changes. Ralph Adams Cram was hired to supervise Frohman, because of his experience with the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York, but Cram insisted on so many major changes to the original design that Frohman convinced the cathedral chapter to fire him. By Frohmans death in 1972, the final plans had been completed and the building was finished accordingly.</p><br>
<h3>Images of architectural details</h3><br>
<h2>Leadership and funding</h2><br>
<p>The cathedral is both the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Washington (currently Mariann Edgar Budde) and the primatial seat of the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church (currently Michael Curry). Budde was elected by the Diocese of Washington in June 2011, to replace Bishop John Bryson Chane; upon her confirmation in November 2011 she became the ninth bishop of the diocese and the first woman to fill the role.</p><br>
<p>The National Cathedral Association (NCA) began in 1899 to help raise funds to build the Cathedral. Across the United States, it has more than 14,000 members, more than 88 percent of whom live outside the Washington area, and who are divided into committees by state. Supporters who give at least $60 per year are automatically enrolled in the NCA, which includes free admission to the Cathedral and other benefits.</p><br>
<p>The budget, $27 million in 2008, was trimmed to $13 million in 2010. Staff was reduced from 170 to 70. There was an endowment of $50 million. The current 2024-2025 budget has grown back to approximately $25 million.</p><br>
<h3>Cathedral Leadership</h3><br>
<p>Gary R. Hall was chosen to be the 10th dean of Washington National Cathedral in July 2012. Hall retired as dean on Dec. 31, 2015.</p><br>
<p>In May 2016, Randolph Marshall Hollerith was named as the next dean of the cathedral. Hollerith came to the National Cathedral from St. James Episcopal Church in Richmond, Virginia, where he was rector from 2000 to 2016.</p><br>
<p>Former Cathedral deans</p><br>
<p>Alfred Harding (de facto; 1909–1916)</p><br>
<p>George C. F. Bratenahl (1916–1936)</p><br>
<p>Noble C. Powell (1937–1941)</p><br>
<p>ZeBarney T. Phillips (1941–1942)</p><br>
<p>John W. Suter (1944–1950)</p><br>
<p>Francis B. Sayre Jr. (1951–1978)</p><br>
<p>John T. Walker (1978–1989; simultaneously bishop)</p><br>
<p>Nathan D. Baxter (1991–2003)</p><br>
<p>Samuel T. Lloyd III (2005–2011)</p><br>
<p>Gary R. Hall (2012–2015)</p><br>
<p>Randolph Marshall Hollerith (2016–present)</p><br>
<p>Cathedral clergy</p><br>
<p>Provost: The Rev. Canon Jan Naylor Cope</p><br>
<p>Canon Vicar: The Rev. Canon Dana Colley Corsello</p><br>
<p>Canon for Worship: The Rev. Canon Rosemarie Logan Duncan</p><br>
<p>Canon Missioner & Minister of Equity and Inclusion: The Rev. Canon Leonard Hamlin, Sr.</p><br>
<p>Canon Theologian: The Rev. Canon Kelly Brown Douglas</p><br>
<p>Priest Associate for Worship: The Rev. Patrick L. Keyser</p><br>
<p>Priest Associate for Congregation: The Rev. Spencer W. Brown</p><br>
<p>Pastor for Digital Ministry: The Rev. Jo Nygard Owens</p><br>
<p>Canon Historian: Jon Meacham (non-clergy)</p><br>
<p>Executive Leadership</p><br>
<p>Chief of Staff and Chief Operating Officer: Lauralyn Lee</p><br>
<p>Chief Financial and Administrative Officer: Maureen McGinniss</p><br>
<p>Chief Development Officer: Vanessa B. Andrews</p><br>
<p>Chief Public Affairs Officer: Kevin Eckstrom</p><br>
<h2>Worship</h2><br>
<p>The worship department is, like the cathedral itself, rooted in the doctrine and practice of the Episcopal Church, and based in the Book of Common Prayer. Weekday services of Morning Prayer are offered by Cathedral clergy online. From September through May, the cathedral choirs sing Evensong Sunday through Thursday. Two services of the Eucharist are held on Sundays, along with Choral Evensong. The Cathedral&#39;s current Canon for Worship is the Rev. Canon Rosemarie Logan Duncan.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral also has been a temporary home to several congregations, including a Jewish synagogue and an Eastern Orthodox community. It has also been the site for several ecumenical and interfaith services. In October 2005, at the cathedral, the Rev. Nancy Wilson was consecrated and installed as moderator (denominational executive) of the Metropolitan Community Church, by its founding moderator, the Rev. Troy Perry.</p><br>
<p>Each Christmas, the cathedral holds special services, which are broadcast to the world. The Christmas service at the cathedral was broadcast to the nation on television from 1953 until 2010 and is still webcast live from the cathedral&#39;s homepage and its YouTube channel.</p><br>
<h2>Music</h2><br>
<p>Organist & Interim Director of Music: Dr. Thomas Sheehan (2019–present, interim since 2024)</p><br>
<p>Associate Director of Music & Chorister Program Manager: Julie DeBoer (2022–present)</p><br>
<p>Associate Director of Music for Contemporary Worship: Michelle Fowlin (2022–present)</p><br>
<p>Organ Scholar: Ariana Corbin (2024-present)</p><br>
<p>Carilloneur: Dr. Edward Nassor (1990–present)</p><br>
<p>The First Director of Music was Edgar Priest (1910-1935), he was followed by Robert George Barrow (1935-1939), Paul Callaway (1939-1977), Richard Wayne Dirksen (1977-1988), Douglas Major (1988-2002), and Michael McCarthy (2003-2024).</p><br>
<p>Organists and choirmasters include Bruce Neswick, James Litton, Erik Wm. Suter, Scott Dettra, Jeremy Filsell, Christopher Betts, The Rev. Benjamin Pearce Straley, Dr. Thomas Sheehan, George Fergus, Rebecca Ehren, and Ariana Corbin. The present artist in residence is Stanley J. Thurston. In September 2024, Michael McCarthy stepped down as Canon for Music and Director of Institutional Planning after nearly 21 years.</p><br>
<h3>Choirs</h3><br>
<p>The Washington National Cathedral Choir of Men and Boys, founded in 1909, is one of very few cathedral choirs of men and boys in the United States with an affiliated school, in the English choir tradition. The eighteen to twenty-two boys singing treble are of ages 8 to 14 and attend St. Albans School, the Cathedral school for boys, on vocal scholarships.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the Cathedral Choir of Men and Girls was formed by Bruce Neswick, using the same men as the choir of the men and boys. The Choir consists of middle and high school girls attending the National Cathedral School on vocal scholarships. The two choirs currently share service duties and occasionally collaborate.</p><br>
<p>Both choirs have recorded several CDs, including a Christmas album; a USA premiere recording of Ståle Kleiberg&#39;s Requiem for the Victims of Nazi Persecution in 2004; and a patriotic album, America the Beautiful in 2005.</p><br>
<p>The choirs rehearse separately every weekday morning in a graded class incorporated into their school schedule. The choristers sing Evensong five days a week (the Boys Choir on Tuesdays and Thursdays and the Girls Choir on Mondays and Wednesdays). The choirs alternate Sunday worship duties, singing both morning Eucharist and afternoon Evensong when they are on call. The choirs also sing for numerous state and national events. The choirs are featured annually on Christmas at Washington National Cathedral, broadcast nationally on Christmas Day.</p><br>
<p>The resident symphonic chorus of Washington National Cathedral is the Cathedral Choral Society.</p><br>
<h3>The Great Organ</h3><br>
<p>The Great Organ was installed by the Ernest M. Skinner & Son Organ Company in 1938. The original instrument consisted of approximately 8,400 pipes. The instrument was enlarged by the Aeolian-Skinner Organ Company in 1963 and again between 1970 and 1975, during which time more than half of the original instrument was removed. The present instrument consists of 189 ranks and 10,647 pipes.</p><br>
<h4>Renovation</h4><br>
<p>Although the instrument was mechanically restored in the late 80s and early 90s, the instrument has deteriorated to the point where a third of the instrument was unplayable, including the entire Solo division. Furthermore, the layout of the organ created a confusing sonic effect for listeners, and the neo-classical approach to organ building that was popular during the era of the Organ Reform Movement had become obsolete. The organ was to be replaced with a new instrument built by Dobson Pipe Organ Builders, but this plan was scrapped in 2009.</p><br>
<p>As of 2023, plans are being developed for a renovation of the instrument. The organ will be renovated by Foley-Baker Inc. of Tolland, CT over a span of 4 years from 2024 to 2028 at the cost of $14 million, and is expected to reduce the size of the organ to 172 ranks and 9,787 pipes.It will include a complete removal of the instrument, and the addition of a suitable digital organ by the Walker Technical Company for the duration of the project. This renovation will include the addition of a new division within the Nave to improve the clarity of the organ to listeners within the Nave, a new mechanical chassis for the instrument, and the removal of some of the least successful pipes from the 1970s renovation. Approximately 50 ranks of pipes from the original 1938 instrument remain, and as many of these ranks will be reused as possible, as well as some of the pipes from the 1970s renovation. The rest of the instrument will consist of new pipework which will seamlessly integrate with what remains from the previous instrument.</p><br>
<p>On December 31, 2023 the temporary Walker organ was unveiled during worship services. The original pipe organ was removed over the course of several weeks and shipped to Foley-Baker for repairs.</p><br>
<h3>Bells</h3><br>
<p>The cathedral is unique in North America in having both a carillon and a set of change ringing bells.</p><br>
<p>The ring of 10 bells (tenor in D) are hung in the English style for full circle ringing. All ten were cast in 1962 by Mears & Stainbank (now known as The Whitechapel Bell Foundry) of London, England.</p><br>
<p>The carillon has 53 bells ranging from 17 lb to 24,000 lb and was manufactured by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough, England in 1963. The bells are hung dead, meaning rigidly fixed, and are struck on the inside by hammers activated from the keyboard.</p><br>
<h3>Contemporary music</h3><br>
<p>In 2016, under the leadership of then-Associate for Worship and Music, the Rev. Dr. Andrew K. Barnett, the Cathedral transformed its 9:00am Sunday Eucharist into a BAS Communion Service with both contemporary language and music. This meant regular collaborations with Barnetts Theodicy Jazz Collective. Following Barnetts departure in 2019 (to All Saints, Atlanta), GRAMMY-Award nominee Daryl L.A. Hunt joined the Cathedral as Associate Director of Music for Contemporary Worship where he expanded the Cathedral Band and focused the Cathedrals contemporary music offerings towards African American spirituals and contemporary ensemble music. Since March 2020, the Cathedrals Principal Sunday Eucharist at 11:15am has included a blend of contemporary and traditional music with contributions from Michele Fowlin, Associate Director of Music for Contemporary Worship.</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>Several notable American citizens are buried in Washington National Cathedral and its columbarium:</p><br>
<p>Larz Anderson (ashes), diplomat, art collector. His wife Isabel Weld Perkins is entombed with him in the cathedral&#39;s St. Mary Chapel.</p><br>
<p>Joseph E. Davies (ashes), diplomat, presidential adviser. He gave a stained-glass window in the cathedral in honor of his mother, Rachel Davies (Rahel o Fôn)</p><br>
<p>George Dewey, United States Navy admiral</p><br>
<p>Philip H. Frohman (ashes), cathedral architect, following the death of Bodley</p><br>
<p>George A. Garrett, diplomat, first United States Ambassador to Ireland</p><br>
<p>Julia Dent Cantacuzène Spiransky-Grant, granddaughter of President Ulysses S. Grant</p><br>
<p>Cordell Hull, United States Secretary of State, Nobel Peace Laureate</p><br>
<p>Helen Keller (ashes), author, lecturer, advocate for the blind and deaf</p><br>
<p>Frank B. Kellogg, USA Secretary of State, Nobel Peace Laureate, buried at the Chapel of St. Joseph of Arimathea</p><br>
<p>John Raleigh Mott, leader of the YMCA and World Christian Student Federation, Nobel Peace Laureate</p><br>
<p>A.S. Mike Monroney (ashes), USA representative, senator</p><br>
<p>Joe Allbritton, banker, publisher and philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Norman Prince, fighter pilot, member of the Lafayette Escadrille flying corps</p><br>
<p>Matthew Shepard (ashes), notable LGBT figure, victim of a hate crime</p><br>
<p>John Wesley Snyder, Secretary of the Treasury in the Truman administration</p><br>
<p>Leo Sowerby (ashes), composer, church musician</p><br>
<p>Anne Sullivan (ashes), tutor and companion to Helen Keller, first woman interred here</p><br>
<p>Stuart Symington, USA senator, presidential candidate</p><br>
<p>Henry Vaughan, architect, associate of Bodley</p><br>
<p>Thomas C. Wasson, diplomat and consul general for the United States in Jerusalem</p><br>
<p>Isabel Weld Perkins (ashes), author, wife of Larz Anderson</p><br>
<p>Edith Wilson, second wife of Woodrow Wilson and First Lady of the United States</p><br>
<p>Woodrow Wilson, 28th president of the United States. Wilson&#39;s tomb includes variants on the seal of the president of the United States and the coat of arms of Princeton University and the State of New Jersey. Wilson is the only American president buried in the District of Columbia.</p><br>
<p>The following Episcopal clergy are buried at the cathedral:</p><br>
<p>Thomas John Claggett († 1816), 1st bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Maryland</p><br>
<p>William F. Creighton († 1987), 5th bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Washington</p><br>
<p>Angus Dun († 1971, ashes), 4th bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>James E. Freeman († 1943), 3th bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Ronald H. Haines († 2008), 7th bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Alfred Harding († 1923), 2nd bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Henry Y. Satterlee († 1908), 1st bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Francis Bowes Sayre Jr. (ashes), dean of the cathedral and grandson of President Woodrow Wilson</p><br>
<p>John T. Walker († 1989), 6th bishop of Washington</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>There are three private Episcopal schools on the grounds of Washington National Cathedral.</p><br>
<p>Beauvoir School, a co-ed school serving preschool through 3rd grade</p><br>
<p>St. Albans School, an all-boys school serving grades four through twelve</p><br>
<p>National Cathedral School, an all-girls school serving grades four through twelve</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The cathedral played a major role in The West Wing season 2 finale "Two Cathedrals." In a scene following the funeral of a major character, President Bartlet engages in a one-sided argument with God which seamlessly blends English and Latin dialogue. The cathedral also makes appearances in the following movies: The Pelican Brief (1993), Lady-like (2017), and the short documentary The Stone Carvers (1984), which describes the construction of the cathedral.</p><br>
<p>Woodlawn Cemetery is one of the largest cemeteries in New York City and a designated National Historic Landmark. Located south of Woodlawn Heights, Bronx, New York City, it has the character of a rural cemetery. Woodlawn Cemetery opened during the Civil War in 1863, in what was then Yonkers, in an area that was annexed to New York City in 1874. It is notable in part as the final resting place of some well-known figures.</p><br>
<h2>Locale and grounds</h2><br>
<p>The Cemetery covers more than 400 acre In 2011, Woodlawn Cemetery was designated a National Historic Landmark, since it shows the transition from the rural cemetery popular at the time of its establishment to the more orderly 20th-century cemetery style.</p><br>
<p>As of 2007, plot prices at Woodlawn were reported as $200 per square foot, $4,800 for a gravesite for two, and up to $1.5 million for land to build a family mausoleum.</p><br>
<h2>Burials moved to Woodlawn</h2><br>
<p>Woodlawn was the destination for many human remains disinterred from cemeteries in more densely populated parts of New York City:</p><br>
<p>Rutgers Street church graves were moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a stated date of December 20, 1866 into the Rutgers Plot, lots 147–170.</p><br>
<p>West Farms Dutch Reformed Church, at Boone Avenue and 172nd Street in The Bronx, had most of its graves moved to Woodlawn Cemetery in 1867 and interred in the Rutgers Plot, Lots 214–221.</p><br>
<p>Bensonia Cemetery, also known as "Morrisania Cemetery", was originally a Native American burial ground. The graves were moved to Woodlawn Cemetery with a stated date of April 21, 1871 and re-interred into Lot 3. Public School #138, in The Bronx, is now on the site.</p><br>
<p>Harlem Church Yard cemetery internees were moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a stated date of August 1, 1871 into the Sycamore Plot, lots 1061–1080.</p><br>
<p>Nagle Cemetery remains were moved in November–December 1926 and reinterred in Primrose Plot, Lot 16150. Identities of those interred are apparently unknown.</p><br>
<p>The Dyckman-Nagle Burying Ground, West 212th Street at 9th Avenue, in the Borough of Manhattan, was originally established in 1677 and originally contained 417 plots. In 1905, the remains, with the exception of Staats Morris Dyckman and his family, were removed. By 1927, the Dyckman graves were finally moved to Woodlawn Cemetery. The former Dutch colonial-era cemetery is now a 207th Street subway train yard.</p><br>
<p>The fictional cemetery of the Synagogue in Brooklyn in the film Once Upon a Time in America is actually located here, renamed "Riverdale Cemetery".</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>Numerous notable persons have been interred at Woodlawn Cemetery including: Chief Justice of the United States Charles Evans Hughes; influential New York urban planner and builder Robert Moses; actress Cicely Tyson; Olympic champion swimmer Gertrude Ederle; aviation pioneer Harriet Quimby; performer, playwright and producer George M. Cohan; gangster Bumpy Johnson; authors Nellie Bly, Countee Cullen, Clarence Day, Damon Runyon, E.L. Doctorow, Herman Melville, and Dorothy Parker; musicians Irving Berlin, Miles Davis, Felix Pappalardi, Duke Ellington, W. C. Handy, Fritz Kreisler, Pigmeat Markham, King Oliver, and Max Roach; singers Celia Cruz and Florence Mills; Film director Otto Preminger; husband and wife magicians Alexander Herrmann and Adelaide Herrmann; sportswriter Grantland Rice; gunfighter and US marshal Bat Masterson; developer of the Rolfing body therapy and noted female biochemist Ida Rolf; and, businessmen such as shipping magnate Archibald Gracie, cosmetics manufacturer Richard Hudnut, Americas first self-made millionaire woman Madam C. J. Walker, department store founder Rowland Hussey Macy, and variety store mogul F. W. Woolworth. A large number of New York brewers (e.g., the Haffens of Haffen Brewing Company) are interred there on "Brewers Row", along with a dozen other brewing scions and their families.</p><br>
<h2>Conservancy</h2><br>
<p>The Woodlawn Conservancy is a 501(c)(3) associated with Woodlawn Cemetery. It began as the Friends of Woodlawn in 1999. It enhances the mission of Woodlawn through fundraising, educational opportunities and outreach with other non-profits. In 2021, over 40 stones were conserved in a joint effort between the Woodlawn Conservancy, the Friends of the Rye African-American Cemetery, World Monuments Fund, and the Jay Heritage Center. The preservation effort was launched to coincide with the new federal Juneteenth celebration.</p><br>
<p>The Boston Navy Yard, originally called the Charlestown Navy Yard and later Boston Naval Shipyard, was one of the oldest shipbuilding facilities in the United States Navy. It was established in 1801 as part of the recent establishment of the new USA Department of the Navy in 1798. After 175 years of military service, it was decommissioned as a naval installation on 1 July 1974.</p><br>
<p>The 30 acre property is administered by the National Park Service, becoming part of Boston National Historical Park. Enough of the yard remains in operation to support the moored USS Constitution ("Old Ironsides") of 1797, built as one of the original six heavy frigates for the revived American navy, and the oldest warship still commissioned in the United States Navy and afloat in the world., a 1943 World War II-era Fletcher-class destroyer serving as a museum ship, is also berthed here. The museum area includes a dock which is a stop on the MBTA Boat water transport system. Among local people in the area and the National Park Service, it is still known as the Charlestown Navy Yard.</p><br>
<p>The South Boston Naval Annex was located along the waterfront in South Boston, an annex of the Navy Yard from 1920 to 1974. Other annexes of the Navy Yard during World War II were the Chelsea Naval Annex (formerly the Green Shipyard, now the Fitzgerald Shipyard), East Boston Naval Annex, and Boston Naval Yard Fuel Depot Annex.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest naval shipbuilding activities in Charlestown, Massachusetts across the Charles River and Boston Harbor to the north from the city of Boston, began during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). The Charlestown Arsenal of United States Army was established in 1794. Shortly thereafter, in 1800, the land for the Charlestown Navy Yard was purchased by the United States government and the yard itself was established. The yard built the first USA ship of the line, in 1814, and at least twelve small vessels for the American Civil War, but was primarily a repair and storage facility until the 1890s, when it started to build steel ships for the "New Navy". By then, it was called the Boston Navy Yard.</p><br>
<p>On 24 June 1833, the staff and dignitaries including then Vice President Martin Van Buren, Secretary of War Lewis Cass, Secretary of the Navy Levi Woodbury, and many Massachusetts officials, witnessed "one of the great events of American naval history": the early United States frigate was inaugurating the first naval drydock in New England designed by prominent civil engineer Loammi Baldwin Jr.</p><br>
<p>The ropewalk supplied cordage used in the Navy from the time it opened in 1837 until the Yard closed in 1975. After the Civil War (1861–1865), the Yard was downgraded to an Equipment and Recruit Facility.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1880s and 1890s, the Navy began expanding again bringing into service new modern steel-hulled steam-powered warships and that brought new life to the Yard. In the first years of the 20th century, a second drydock was added. During World War II (1939/1941–1945), it worked to fix British Royal Navy warships and merchant transports damaged by the Nazi Germans when crossing the North Atlantic Ocean. On 27 September 1941—Liberty Fleet Day—Boston launched two destroyers, USS Cowie and the USS Knight. Even before the USA entered the Second World War after the Pearl Harbor attack on 7 December 1941, a month before in November, Boston was one of four United States naval shipyards selected to build s under the Lend-Lease military assistance program for the Royal Navy. Since the United States was at war when these ships were finally completed, some were later requisitioned and used by the United States Navy as destroyer escorts.</p><br>
<p>In the post war period, the shipyard modified World War II ships for Cold War (1945–1991) service through Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization (FRAM). The Korean War (1950–1953), and Vietnam War (1964–1975) did not bring much work to the yard since it was so far from the fighting. The Yard closed after the Vietnam War.</p><br>
<p>It was also the location of the Marine Barracks Boston.</p><br>
<h2>Dry Docks and Slipways</h2><br>
<h2>Ships built at Boston Navy Yard</h2><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>When ideas were floated for redevelopment of the yard, one of the people&#39;s popular idea was to have the yard turned into a construction yard for oil tankers. Ultimately, these plans fell through, and the site became part of the Boston National Historical Park. Its mission is, "to interpret the art and history of naval shipbuilding".</p><br>
<p>The Boston Navy Yard hosts many attractions, including Charlestown Naval Shipyard Park. The fully commissioned and the museum ship are tied up at Pier 1 and open to the public. The Navy Yard also hosts the USS Constitution Museum. Dry Dock No. 1 is still used for ship maintenance for Constitution and Cassin Young. In May 2015, Constitution entered the dry dock for three years of repairs.</p><br>
<p>The Yard is toward the north end of the Freedom Trail. The MBTA Boat stops at nearby Pier 4, providing easy visitor access to the Yard. The campus of the MGH Institute of Health Professions occupies seven buildings in the Yard, including classroom, office, and clinical space. Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and multiple Massachusetts General Hospital research laboratories occupy the perimeter.</p><br>
<p>Tuolumne Meadows is a gentle, dome-studded, sub-alpine meadow area along the Tuolumne River in the eastern section of Yosemite National Park in the United States. Its approximate location is {{coord|37|52.5|N|119|21|W|}}. Its approximate elevation is 8,619 feet. The term Tuolumne Meadows is also often used to describe a large portion of the Yosemite high country around the meadows, especially in context of rock climbing.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>The meadow vegetation is supported by shallow groundwater. The water comes from 1,000 mm (39 inches) of precipitation annually, predominantly in the form of snow. Water arises from snowmelt and hill-slope aquifers, and flows through the Tuolumne River, Budd Creek, Delaney Creek, and Unicorn Creek. In spring, as soon as the snow melts, it is not uncommon to see large areas of the meadows flooded and practically transformed into lakes.</p><br>
<p>While the mountains of the Sierra Nevada near the meadows have had some permanent snowfields, in the summer they are mostly free of snow. Although brief, the late spring and summer wildflower bloom in Tuolumne Meadows is host to a wide variety of California wildflowers, including the relatively rare Purple Webber, a type of lupin.</p><br>
<p>Plant species composition changes across the meadows with different landforms, landscape positions, and summer water-table depths. Areas with seasonal flooding and deep-standing water support the inflated sedge and Sierra willow. The main herbaceous wet meadow species include alpine aster, nearly-black sedge, King&#39;s ricegrass, western bistort, Breweri&#39;s reed grass, and dwarf bilberry. Thread-leaved sedge, pussy-toes, Sierra lodgepole pine, and Ross sedge are found in drier uplands within or on the edge of the meadows.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Tuolumne Meadows has a good view of the Cathedral Range and Unicorn Peak (to the south), Lembert Dome, and Mount Dana (to the east). Camping is available at the Tuolumne Meadows campground (reservations recommended). Excellent hiking and rock climbing are accessible from Tuolumne Meadows, which tends to be less crowded than Yosemite Valley. Downstream (flowing to the right (western) side of the image), the Tuolumne River cascades over Waterwheel Falls near Glen Aulin, eventually pooling at Hetch Hetchy Reservoir.</p><br>
<p>The road to the meadows is generally free of snow from June through October. Due to the extreme elevation, road access over Tioga Pass along Highway 120 is closed through winter season.</p><br>
<h3>Hiking</h3><br>
<p>Many backcountry hiking and backpacking trails start in Tuolumne Meadows including the primary route to summit Mount Lyell, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park. The John Muir and the Pacific Crest Trails are long-distance backpacking trails and follow a route through Lyell Canyon into Tuolumne Meadows. A large number of backpackers hike these trails each year. Along with these longer trails, Tuolumne Meadows feature a wide range of day trails to locations including Gaylor Lakes, Cathedral Lakes, Mono Pass, and Lembert Dome. The day hike trails are popular, and become busy during the summer high seasons. These trails are serviced by the Tuolumne Meadows shuttle bus, typically from June to September, though the dates are subject to change due to weather.</p><br>
<h3>Rock climbing</h3><br>
<p>In contrast to the big walls of Yosemite Valley, climbing at Tuolumne generally consists of short- to medium-length routes on eleven major domes and a number of minor ones, stretching from the Stately Pleasure Dome above Tenaya Lake to Lembert Dome on the east side of the Meadows. Since the area is all at a high elevation, the climbing season is mainly limited to June through September.</p><br>
<p>The rock is porphyritic granite, a very strong form of granite. It has a tendency for exfoliation, which helps produce and preserve the distinctive dome shapes. The resulting climbing includes both face and crack routes, the former often runout due to limited numbers of bolts, and the latter frequently following very thin cracks. The local ethic is to limit the placement of bolts on new routes and to forbid the addition of bolts to existing routes, resulting in distances of 40 feet (12 m) or more between bolts.</p><br>
<p>The major domes include:</p><br>
<p>* Stately Pleasure Dome</p><br>
<p>* Polly Dome</p><br>
<p>* Daff Dome</p><br>
<p>* Pothole Dome</p><br>
<p>* Lembert Dome</p><br>
<p>* Fairview Dome</p><br>
<p>See Granite Domes of Yosemite National Park for a list of granite domes in Yosemite National park, not just around Tuolumne.</p><br>
<p>In addition, the peaks of the nearby Cathedral Range, such as Cathedral Peak, Pywiack Dome, and Medlicott Dome, are traditionally considered part of the climbing area.</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>The Tuolumne Meadows area is served by the Tioga Pass Road (California SR 120), which had been paved by the 1920s. Its present route through the meadows was laid out in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps. A housing area for seasonal employees was relocated at that time, whose new site includes a surviving collection of fine National Park Service rustic CCC-built structures listed on the National Register of Historic Places as "Tuolumne Meadows" in 1978.</p><br>
<p>Fort Christina, also called Fort Altena, was the first Swedish settlement in North America and the principal settlement of the New Sweden colony. Built in 1638 and named after Christina, Queen of Sweden, it was located approximately 1 mi  east of the present-day downtown Wilmington, Delaware, at the confluence of the Brandywine River and the Christina River, approximately 2 mi  upstream from the mouth of the Christina on the Delaware River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Following plans by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to establish a Swedish colony in North America, the Swedes arrived in Delaware Bay (Fort Christina) on March 29, 1638, aboard the ships Kalmar Nyckel and Fogel Grip under the command of Peter Minuit, the former director of the New Netherland colony. They landed at a spot along the Christina River at a stone outcropping which formed a natural wharf, known as "The Rocks." Minuit selected the site on the Christina River near the Delaware as being optimal for trade in beaver pelts with the local Lenape. He also considered the site easily defensible, and he ordered the construction of an earthwork fort around the Rocks.</p><br>
<p>At the time, the Dutch had claimed the area south to the Delaware (then called "South River"). The Swedes claimed an area for the Realm of Sweden on the south side of the Delaware that encompassed much of the present-day USA state of Delaware, eventually including parts of present-day southeastern Pennsylvania and southern New Jersey on the north side of the river.</p><br>
<p>The fort&#39;s earthworks were strengthened in 1640 by Governor Peter Hollander Ridder to help defend against the possibility of Dutch or Native American attacks. As additional colonists arrived from Sweden in the years following the landing, homes and farms began to be built outside of the confines of the fort. The fort was rebuilt entirely in 1647.</p><br>
<p>The colony of New Sweden remained in constant friction with the Dutch. In 1651, the Dutch under Peter Stuyvesant established Fort Casimir at present-day New Castle, only 7 mi (12 km) south of Fort Christina, in order to menace the Swedish settlement. In 1654, the Swedes captured Fort Casimir under the orders of Governor Johan Risingh. Risingh, fearing reprisals, strengthened the defenses of Fort Christina by adding a wooden palisade around the earthworks.</p><br>
<p>In 1655, the Dutch under Stuyvesant returned in force and laid siege to Fort Christina. The fort&#39;s surrender after ten days ended the official Swedish colonial presence in North America, though most of the colonists remained and were allowed to continue their linguistic and religious practices by the Dutch. Stuyvesant renamed Fort Christina as Fort Altena. It is noteworthy to the modern reader that the struggle for Fort Christina and Fort Casimir involved hundreds of mercenaries and chartered warships, and was run personally by Stuyvesant, but was not seen at the time as in any way a war between the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Sweden. It was rather a struggle between the Dutch West India Company and the Swedish West India Company.</p><br>
<p>The land remained as part of New Netherland until it became part of the English possessions when an English fleet invaded the area in 1664. Under English rule, the original Swedish fortifications around the Rocks fell into disrepair and eventually vanished entirely.</p><br>
<p>New fortifications were built by the Americans on the same site during the Revolutionary period, and they established Fort Union here during the War of 1812. Men involved in the defense of the fort included Caesar Augustus Rodney and James A. Bayard Sr.</p><br>
<p>During the nineteenth century, the peninsula where the fort once stood became heavily industrialized, and included factories for the Jackson and Sharp Company and Mingus Iron Works.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Christina National Historic Landmark</h2><br>
<p>In 1938, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Swedish colonization of the area, the state of Delaware created a park which contained the Rocks and the site of the former forts. The dedication was attended by USA President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Crown Prince Gustav Adolf, Crown Princess Louise, and Prince Bertil. The Prince presented a gift from their homeland: a monument, topped by a replica of the Kalmar Nyckel, designed by Swedish sculptor Carl Milles.</p><br>
<p>During the ceremony, the Prince spoke of the site&#39;s significance to both countries:</p><br>
<p>The monument to be unveiled today is a gift from the people of Sweden to the people of the United States. The funds were raised through public subscription, wherein several hundred thousands of our citizens took part. I believe that amongst these subscribers, many had across the Atlantic brothers and sisters, parents and children. In contributing, they must have felt the links, which connect them and all of us with your great country, where so many of the citizens are either of Swedish birth or purely or partly of Swedish descent.</p><br>
<p>Near this spot, the Fort Christina State Park, was the first permanent settlement in the Delaware Valley. The Swedes, who landed here 300 years ago, were few in number and of poor means. Yet thus began the relations between our two Nations. Indeed, it is fitting that, together, we should commemorate that event, the inauguration of an unbroken period of international friendship.</p><br>
<p>We shall be reminded of these facts by the monument, cut by our famous sculptor, Carl Milles, in the black granite of Sweden. What memories are summoned forth at a moment like this. It is with pride we recall the memory of those almost legendary pioneers who braved the Atlantic in their little vessel, the Kalmar Nyckel, and who came to found the colony of New Sweden. That little band of gallant men and women have inscribed their names on the pages of history. Their deeds have been considered important enough for the President and Congress of the United States to extend an official invitation to Sweden to take part in the commemorative celebration of this historic event. We of Sweden are deeply moved by this mark of your esteem. It meets with our high appreciation and we offer you our most sincere thanks.</p><br>
<p>In our common acclaim of a historic event of 300 years ago, we stand united, as in our admiration of those early settlers from Sweden who were such worthy and resourceful people. Their love of freedom and their integrity they carried with them as a heritage from the land of their birth. We are happy to feel that in some measure they, as well as their successors during the intervening three centuries, were able to contribute to the development into greatness of your country, the country of their adoption. We are proud to think that their virtue and valor were brought down to their descendants and thus helped in the formation of those traits which we admire in the American people of the present day.</p><br>
<p>President Roosevelt, in accepting the monument, responded that, "I am fortunate in having personal association with the colony of Sweden, for one of my ancestors, William Beekman, served as vice director or governor of the colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River from 1658 to 1663."</p><br>
<p>In May 2013, for the 375th anniversary of the Swedish landing, King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia of Sweden, along with USA Vice President Joe Biden, reenacted the landing of the Kalmar Nyckel at Fort Christina Park on a replica of the original ship.</p><br>
<p>The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961. In 2014, the First State National Historical Park was authorized to potentially include Fort Christina; it now is part of the site.</p><br>
<h2>Literary references</h2><br>
<p>American author and essayist Washington Irving (1783–1859) refers to Fort Christina in the opening pages of his short story "Rip van Winkle", describing the genealogy of his Dutch protagonist:</p><br>
<p>Fort Bridger was originally a 19th-century fur trading outpost established in 1842, on Blacks Fork of the Green River, in what is now Uinta County, Wyoming, United States. It became a vital resupply point for wagon trains on the Oregon, California, and Mormon Trails. The US Army established a military post here in 1858 during the Utah War, until it was finally closed in 1890. A small town, Fort Bridger, Wyoming, remains near the fort and takes its name from it.</p><br>
<h2>Bridger&#39;s trading post</h2><br>
<p>The post was established by the mountain man Jim Bridger, after whom it is named, and Louis Vasquez. In December 1843, Bridger wrote Pierre Chouteau Jr., "I have established a small fort, with a blacksmith shop and a supply of iron in the road of emigrants on Black Fork of Green River, which promises fairly." According to Stanley Vestal, "His fort consisted simply of an eight-foot stockade, with a corral adjoining on the north. Within that stockade stood four log cabins with flat dirt roofs. One of these housed Bridgers forge and carpenters bench, another his store, the third his family and possibles, while the fourth was the home of his partner." On October 19, 1852, Mrs. Benjamin G. Ferris visited with her husband, and described the fort as "- a long, low, strongly-constructed log building, surrounded by a high wall of logs, stuck endwise in the ground." On March 9, 1854, Bridger filed a claim with the United States General Land Office, for the 3,800 acre around the fort.</p><br>
<p>Richard Francis Burton visited the fort in August 1860, and later wrote, "Colonel Bridger, when an Indian trader, placed this post upon a kind of neutral ground between the Snakes and the Crows (Hapsaroke) on the north, the Oglalas and other Sioux to the east, the Arapahoes and Cheyennes on the south, and various tribes of Yutas (Utahs) on the southwest."</p><br>
<p>In 1845, Lansford Hastings published a guide entitled The Emigrant&#39;s Guide to Oregon and California, which advised California emigrants to leave the Oregon Trail at Fort Bridger, pass through the Wasatch Range across the Great Salt Lake Desert (an 80-mile waterless drive), loop around the Ruby Mountains, and rejoin the California Trail about seven miles west of modern Elko, Nevada (now Emigrant Pass). The ill-fated Donner-Reed Party followed that route, along which they were met by a rider sent by Hastings to deliver letters to traveling emigrants. On July 12, the Donners and Reeds were given one of these letters, in which among other messages, Hastings claimed to have "worked out a new and better road to California", and said he would be waiting at Fort Bridger to guide the emigrants along the new cutoff.</p><br>
<h2>Mormons and Fort Supply</h2><br>
<p>On July 7, 1847, Orson Pratt was amongst the first party of Mormons to arrive at the fort. He described the fort as, "Bridger&#39;s post consists of two adjoining log houses, dirt roofs, and a small picket yard of logs set in the ground, and about eight feet high." Nine native lodges were located nearby.</p><br>
<p>With the arrival of the Mormon pioneers in 1847, disputes arose between Bridger and the new settlers. By 1853, a militia of Mormons was sent to arrest him for selling alcohol and firearms to the Native Americans, a violation of Federal Law. He escaped capture and temporarily returned to the East. Near the existing fort, the Mormons established their own Fort Supply the same year. In 1855, Mormons took over Fort Bridger, reportedly having bought it for $8,000 in gold coins. The Mormons claimed, over Bridgers denials, they had purchased the fort from Vasquez. There was a deed dated August 3, 1855, recorded October 21, 1858, in Salt Lake City in Records Book B. p. 128, that ostensibly sold Fort Bridger to the LDS Church. Bridger and Vasquezs names were signed by H. F. Morrell in the presence of Alinerin Grow and William Adams Hickman, purportedly pursuant to a power of attorney. Bridger was absent from the area in 1855, acting as guide for Sir St George Gore.</p><br>
<p>Andrew Jenson noted, "From 1853 to 1857, Fort Bridger was quite an important Mormon outpost." Orson Hyde arrived at the fort on November 13, 1853, with 39 Mormon settlers. They established Fort Supply on Willow Creek, about 12 mi southwest of Fort Bridger. Jenson goes on to state, "Fort Bridger and Fort Supply were deserted by the Mormons in September, 1857, on the approach of Col. Johnston&#39;s army."</p><br>
<h2>Military post</h2><br>
<p>On November 18, 1857, Bridger leased his surveyed land to the United States, though payment was withheld until Bridger could establish title. Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston was to use the land for his army during the Utah War. Relations had deteriorated between Mormon leaders in Utah Territory and federal authorities in Washington, D.C. President James Buchanan ordered the United States Army to install a new governor, Alfred Cumming to replace Brigham Young. As the army of 2,500 advanced in November 1857, the Mormons set fire to the Fort Bridger buildings. Johnston kept his supplies, with a garrison, within the stone walls which remained, while the army wintered at Camp Scott nearby. In June 1858, as the majority of Johnston&#39;s Army set off for Salt Lake City, two companies of troops remained behind. The other troops continued on and eventually established Camp Floyd south of Salt Lake City.</p><br>
<p>Major William Hoffman commanded the army depot of Fort Bridger from 7 June 1858, until 17 August, when he was relieved by Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Edward Canby. Elements of the Sixth and Tenth Infantry, and First Cavalry, erected storehouses and troop quarters. On July 14, 1859, orders established a military reservation at Fort Bridger amounting to 500 square miles. Major Richard C. Gatlin took over command on 7 March 1860. Captain Alfred Cumming took command on 4 June 1860, followed by Captain Franklin Gardner on 7 August 1860. Captain Jesse Gove commanded from 29 May 1861 until 9 August, when the number of troops was reduced due to demands of the American Civil War. Captain M. G. Lewis took over command in December 1862, followed by Major Noyes Baldwin in 1865. Captain Anson Mills assumed command from November 1866 until August 1867.</p><br>
<p>In 1858, William A. Carter was appointed as post sutler at Fort Bridger. Perhaps more than any other individual, the history of the post revolves around this civilian merchant who remained at the center of the posts activities for his lifetime. When William A. Carter died in November 1881, his wife, Mary Elizabeth Hamilton Carter, became sutler, then renamed as the post trader until 1890. Judge Carter was a probate judge who had served in the army during the Seminole Wars. He managed both his sutlers store, and the post office, under one roof.</p><br>
<p>Chief Washakie signed the Fort Bridger Treaty of 1868 at the fort on 3 July, which ceded the Shoshone and Bannock lands in southwestern Wyoming, and created the Wind River Indian Reservation.</p><br>
<p>Lieutenant Colonel Henry Morrow was in command from 9 November 1867 until 17 April 1869. During this time, Fort Bridger troops helped guard construction of the Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad) and the Overland Stage and Mail route. In the summer of 1870, Yale College Professor Othniel Charles Marsh used the fort as a base camp during a geological expedition. The fort was also host to the geological survey conducted by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden from 12 September to 1 October 1870.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>The historical Fort Bridger has several interesting old buildings still standing: the old Pony Express barn and the Mormon protective wall.</p><br>
<p>On June 27, 1928, the site of the fort, and remaining buildings, were sold to the Historical Landmark Commission of Wyoming. Dedication ceremonies were held on June 25, 1933 establishing Fort Bridger as a Wyoming Historical Landmark and Museum. The Annual Fort Bridger Muzzle Loading Rendezvous is held every Labor Day weekend.</p><br>
<p>The Hacienda is the current designation for a historic hotel in Monterey County, near the town of Jolon, California. It was completed in 1930 for use by William Randolph Hearst as temporary housing for his employees and guests and headquarters for activities taking place on the surrounding land. The lodge building, designed by architect Julia Morgan, replaced and expanded upon an earlier wooden structure known as the Milpitas Ranch House which was destroyed by fire in the 1920s. The 1930 hotel has also been known as Milpitas Hacienda, Hacienda Guest Lodge and Milpitas Ranchhouse, under which name the property was placed in the National Register of Historic Places on December 2, 1977.</p><br>
<p>The lodge currently has guest rooms and a bar but no food services. It is located within an active US Army Reserve unit, and guests must have proof of lodge reservations and a Real ID or passport to pass through a manned guard gate to reach the lodge.</p><br>
<p>Hearst sold the structure and its surrounding property to the United States Army in 1940 for use as a training facility. The land and buildings were established by the Army as Fort Hunter Liggett. Today, the Army owns the building and a concessionaire operates it as a public hotel within the military base.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The fertile valley surrounding The Hacienda was documented by Spanish explorer Gaspar de Portolà in 1769. Based on his recommendation, Father Junípero Serra established Mission San Antonio de Padua in the valley in 1771, and it thrived. Of all the California missions, San Antonio de Padua converted the highest number of Native Americans, peaking at 1,300 Salinan converts in 1805. In the 1830s, the mission was secularized and its holdings were divided into at least ten land grants (including Rancho Milpitas, or Little Corn Fields Ranch) given to soldiers and civilians supportive of Mexican government. English-speaking settlers began arriving in significant numbers in 1849 with the discovery of gold in California. Nearby Jolon was established as a gold mining town on an old Salinan village site in 1860, astride El Camino Real, the old road connecting all the Spanish missions in California.</p><br>
<h3>Hearst</h3><br>
<p>At the beginning of the 20th century, gold mining had petered out and Hearst began buying up property in the area. Over the next two decades, he amassed land holdings covering the entirety of four of the ten Mexican land grants and most of Jolon. On top of the old Rancho Milpitas main ranch house site, at the edge of a small hill and about half a mile from and overlooking the old mission, Hearst hired Morgan to build a new ranch headquarters. Construction on the Mission Revival-styled building complex began in 1929, using poured concrete instead of adobe. A smoothly domed north tower was built in Moorish Revival style above the main living quarters. Original plans for the building were for it to include housing for 20 employees but this was expanded to 30 during construction. A proposed southern wing for Hearst&#39;s private quarters was never completed. Materials were carried from Santa Cruz in a Fageol truck. Construction costs totaled $200,000.</p><br>
<p>The building was not originally supplied with electricity. Wires for a single telephone line were run from Hearst Castle 30 mi away. Wood stoves and fireplaces supplied heat, candles and lanterns provided light, and a well near the San Antonio River fed a cistern positioned a short distance uphill to the east to supply water pressure for a modern plumbing system. Those staying at The Hacienda year-round included the ranch manager, mechanics, gardeners, cooks and a ranch foreman who supervised cowboys tending cattle and farmhands harvesting wheat, barley, oats and alfalfa.</p><br>
<p>Hearsts guests could drive in, fly in and land at an adjacent landing strip, or they could arrive by horseback after a full days ride from San Simeon. Guests included Spencer Tracy, Dick Powell, Will Rogers, Clark Gable, Herbert Hoover, Jean Harlow, Leslie Howard and Errol Flynn. Hearsts paramour, Marion Davies, stayed in one of the four tower suites when she visited. Californio-style fiestas were thrown in the guests honor, complete with mariachis playing from the dining room balcony.</p><br>
<p>Although hunting in the area was enjoyed by sportsmen both before and after Hearsts ownership, Hearst did not allow any hunting on his property, and the California State Military Museum has concluded that The Hacienda was not built as a hunting lodge. Other observers have described the building as Hearsts hunting lodge.</p><br>
<h3>Army</h3><br>
<p>On December 12, 1940, Hearst sold 158,000 acre, including the old Milpitas Ranch, to the United States government. Neighboring landowners sold another 108,950 acre to form a 266,950 acre training base for the War Department. The US Army used The Hacienda as housing for the base commander, for visiting officers and for the officers&#39; club.</p><br>
<p>In 1957, a serviceman named Bill Runyan painted heroic murals depicting Spanish settlement of the area</p><br>
<h3>National Park Service study</h3><br>
<p>In November 1999, Congress authorized a study of Fort Hunter Liggett partly in response to a 1995 recommendation made by a Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) commission which listed certain structures within the base as excess to the Army&#39;s needs. In 2004, the National Park Service (NPS) released an environmental assessment draft which identified for further study the Julia Morgan-designed Milpitas Hacienda complex including the swimming pool, tennis court and outbuildings as well as a number of other historic structures on the base and in the area. The NPS wrote that inclusion of the Milpitas Hacienda in the national park system would offer an opportunity to enhance visitor experience and expand their understanding of the lives and work of Morgan and Hearst. The NPS described the Milpitas Hacienda as representing the themes "expressing cultural values" and "developing the American economy" for its connection to Hearst and his media empire. Two alternatives were put forward: one where no action would be taken, and one where title to the Milpitas Hacienda and nearby bungalows would be transferred to California State Parks to be managed as an addition to the Hearst San Simeon State Historical Monument.</p><br>
<p>The US Army sent NPS a letter on May 27, 2005, stating that the BRAC property was no longer excess to the Army and was now required in order to support the Armys mission. This reversal in status for The Hacienda caused the NPS to re-evaluate its study of title transfer and management options, and to cease environmental assessment. On September 19, 2006, NPS submitted to Congress its final report which concluded that a number of national resources in and around Fort Hunter Liggett including the Milpitas Hacienda complex were suitable for inclusion in the national park system but that such an action was not currently feasible because none of the land or buildings were excess to the Armys needs. The NPS encouraged the Army "to continue its protection and management of the natural and cultural resources in a manner that retains their national significance."</p><br>
<p>Today, the United States Army Reserve operates the base, and a civilian concessionaire is allowed to run The Hacienda as a hotel open both to the public and to the military. Visitor access to the base, the hotel and the old Spanish mission is monitored through an Army checkpoint.</p><br>
<p>Philadelphia Stock Exchange , now known as Nasdaq PHLX, is the first stock exchange established in the United States and the oldest stock exchange in the nation. The exchange is owned by Nasdaq, which acquired it in 2007 for $652 million, and is headquartered in Philadelphia.</p><br>
<p>The exchange was founded in 1790 and originally named the Board of Brokers of Philadelphia and sometimes referred to as the Philadelphia Board of Brokers. In 1875, the Board of Brokers changed its name to the Philadelphia Stock Exchange.</p><br>
<p>In 1949, the exchange merged with the Baltimore Stock Exchange and was renamed the Philadelphia-Baltimore Stock Exchange.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>1790–1875: Board of Brokers</h3><br>
<p>Over its more than 200 years in existence, the Philadelphia Stock Exchange has had various titles and has been located in various buildings around Philadelphia. Founded in 1790 as the "Board of Brokers," it was located at the Merchants Coffee House, now known as the City Tavern, at the corner of Second and Walnut Streets.</p><br>
<p>In 1831, Stephen Girard’s Bank had formed the "Philadelphia Merchant’s Exchange Company" to erect a new building to house the Board of Brokers and other groups. The Board of Brokers moved into the Merchants Exchange Building at 3rd and Dock Streets in 1834 following a fire at the coffee house.</p><br>
<p>On June 20, 1857, the Board of Brokers of Philadelphia transacted no business in the stock board, as their annual dinner was held that day.</p><br>
<p>As of January 1, 1874, the par price for membership in the Philadelphia Board of Brokers was $1,000, with 198 seats, and "not others are attainable under $2,000 each." The board represented a market capital of around $350,000.</p><br>
<h3>1875–1949: Philadelphia Stock Exchange</h3><br>
<p>In 1875, the Board of Brokers changed its name to the Philadelphia Stock Exchange.</p><br>
<p>In 1876, the exchange moved to the rear of the Girard Bank Building, formerly the First Bank of the United States. It stayed there until 1888. From 1888 to 1902, the exchange moved to the Drexel Building which was located near Fifth Street and Chestnut. Between 1902 and 1912, the exchange returned to the Merchants Exchange Building. In 1913, it moved to a building at 1411 Walnut Street, now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In 1951, the exchange moved to the Central Penn Bank Building at 1401 Walnut Street. It stayed there until 1966 when it moved to a newly constructed building (currently the Sofitel Hotel) at 17th and Sansom. The 1700 block of Ionic Street, a narrow thoroughfare just north of this building, was renamed Stock Exchange Place and was still signed as such as of 2017.</p><br>
<p>In December 1968, in response to a fiscal crisis, Philadelphia imposed a $0.05 per share stock transfer tax for all transactions on the PHLX. On January 2, 1969, the PHLX moved its trading floor to an office building, then known as the Decker Building, just across a street from the city boundaries in Bala Cynwyd to avoid the tax. In February, a court ruled that the tax was illegal, and the PHLX moved its trading floor back to its headquarters in the city.</p><br>
<p>In 1981, the exchange moved to 19th and Market, where it stayed until 2017 when it moved to its current location in the newly built FMC Tower.</p><br>
<h3>1949–present: Mergers</h3><br>
<p>The exchange merged with the Baltimore Stock Exchange in 1949. The exchange was then named the Philadelphia-Baltimore Stock Exchange. The Baltimore Stock Exchange then migrated out of its Baltimore Stock Exchange Building, later renamed the Totman Building, to a new home base in Philadelphia.</p><br>
<p>The exchange merged with the Washington Stock Exchange in 1954. The exchange was known as the Philadelphia-Baltimore-Washington Stock Exchange (often abbreviated as PBW) after those mergers. In 1969, the exchange acquired the Pittsburgh Stock Exchange, and maintained an auxiliary trading floor in Pittsburgh until 1974.</p><br>
<p>On October 22, 1981, trading was halted on both the Chicago Board of Trade and the Philadelphia Stock Exchange after anonymous callers said bombs had been placed in those buildings.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, a number of large financial firms purchased stakes in the exchange as a hedge against growing consolidation of stock trading by the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. These firms—Morgan Stanley, Citigroup, Credit Suisse First Boston, UBS, Merrill Lynch and Citadel LLC—collectively owned about 89% of the exchange.</p><br>
<p>On October 20, 2007, The Wall Street Journal reported that the exchange was for sale by a group of its shareholders, and was expected to be sold for about $600 million.</p><br>
<p>On November 7, 2007, NASDAQ announced a "definitive agreement" to purchase PHLX for $652 million, with the transaction expected to close in early 2008. On July 24, 2008, the acquisition was completed, creating the third-largest options market in the USA</p><br>
<p>On October 29, 2012, the stock exchange was shut down for two days due to Hurricane Sandy. The last time the stock exchange was closed due to weather for a full two days was on March 12 and 13, 1888.</p><br>
<p>As of 2014, the exchange handles trades for approximately 3,600 equity options, 15 index options, and a number of FX options. The PHLX has more than 16% of United States market share in exchange-listed stock and ETF options trading.</p><br>
<p>In March 2020, the PHLX announced plans to temporarily move to all-electronic trading on March 23, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Along with the NYSE and the BSE, the PHLX reopened on May 26, 2020.</p><br>
<h2>Locations</h2><br>
<p>1790-1834 &ndash; Merchants Coffee House (City Tavern), 138 South 2nd Street at Walnut Street</p><br>
<p>1834-1876 &ndash; Merchants&#39; Exchange Building, 143 South 3rd Streets at Dock Street</p><br>
<p>1876-1888 &ndash; Girard Bank Building, 120 South 3rd Street, between Walnut and Chestnut Streets</p><br>
<p>1888-1902 &ndash; Drexel Building, near Chestnut and South 5th Streets</p><br>
<p>1902-1912 &ndash; Merchants&#39; Exchange Building, 143 South 3rd Streets at Dock Street</p><br>
<p>1913-1951 &ndash; 1411 Walnut Street, between South Broad and South 15th Streets</p><br>
<p>1951-1966 &ndash; Central Penn Bank Building, 1401 Walnut Street, between South Broad and South 15th Streets</p><br>
<p>1966-1981 &ndash; 120 South 17th Street, between Sansom Street and Stock Exchange Place (Ionic Street)</p><br>
<p>Jan-Feb 1969 &ndash; Drecker Building, Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania (trading floor only)</p><br>
<p>1981-2017 &ndash; Market and South 19th Streets</p><br>
<p>2017-now &ndash; FMC Tower at Cira Centre South, 2929 Walnut Street, between Schuylkill Expressway and South 30th Street</p><br>
<h2>Hours</h2><br>
<p>The exchange&#39;s normal trading sessions are from 9:30 am to 4:00 pm on all days of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the exchange in advance.</p><br>
<p>The Delaware and Raritan Canal  is a canal in central New Jersey, built in the 1830s, that connects the Delaware River to the Raritan River. It was an efficient and reliable means of transportation of freight between Philadelphia and New York City, transporting anthracite coal from eastern Pennsylvania during much of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The canal allowed shippers to cut many miles off the existing route from the Pennsylvania Coal Region down the Delaware, around Cape May, and up the occasionally treacherous Atlantic Ocean coast to New York City.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The idea of a canal between the Raritan and Delaware Rivers originated with William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, who suggested it in the 1690s. Such a canal would shorten the journey from Philadelphia to New York City by 100 miles, and relieve the need for boats to venture into the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1816, the New Jersey legislature created a commission of three people, including John Rutherfurd, a former United States Senator and a major landowner in New Jersey, which was authorized to survey and map a proposed route for a canal. Rutherfurd engaged John Randel Jr. to do the survey; Rutherfurd knew Randel from his work on the New York City Commissioners Plan of 1811, for which Rutherfurd was one of the commissioners, and Randel was the chief surveyor. The route was to be "a level line as far as was practicable from Longbridge farm to the Delaware, and to the Raritan, in the shortest direction that the ground would admit, which line should be run with the greatest accuracy, and be esteemed the base line of the work." Randel spent two months surveying this route and, with the aid of a millwright, estimating water flow. They came to the conclusion that the canal would require less than an eighteenth of the water passing through the local streams, which would still leave enough water flow for local mills. Despite Randels report, and the clear advantage of having such a canal, the opposition to the project managed to keep anything from happening until 1830.</p><br>
<p>On February 4, 1830, the New Jersey legislature passed legislation that created the charter for the D&R Canal. The charter for the Camden and Amboy Rail Road and Transportation Company was passed the same day. The D&R charter allocated $1.5 million of stock for construction which was required to be completed within eight years. The canal was to be considered a public highway although the corporation would be allowed to collect tolls and transit duties for passengers and cargo transported along the canal.</p><br>
<p>The canal was almost not dug due to the lack of subscriptions. When that occurred, Robert F. Stockton, the grandson of Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, pledged his and his family&#39;s personal fortune to continue the work. The canal system was dug mostly by hand tools, mostly by Irish immigrants. Work began in 1830 and was completed in 1834, at an estimated cost of $2,830,000, equal to $ today. When the canal first opened, before the steam engine was developed, teams of mules were used to tow canal boats through it.</p><br>
<p>The canal&#39;s greatest usage occurred during the 1860s and 1870s when it was used primarily to transport coal from Pennsylvania to New York City during the American Industrial Revolution. On May 18, 1872, the D&R Canal Company was merged with several parallel railroads into the United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company and leased by the Pennsylvania Railroad.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>D&R Canal&#39;s importance waned as railroads were used to perform, more rapidly, the same function as canals, but it remained in operation until 1932. Years later, the section between Trenton and Bordentown was filled for various road and rail projects, leaving the feeder waters to solely supply the main canal from Trenton, New Jersey north to New Brunswick. Two other sections of the canal were piped underground: one in Trenton when the Trenton Freeway was constructed in 1952, and the other in New Brunswick when the Elmer Boyd Parkway Extension (Route 18) was constructed in 1984.</p><br>
<h2>Route</h2><br>
<p>The main section of the canal runs from Bordentown on the Delaware River to New Brunswick on the Raritan. A feeder canal section (which feeds water into the main canal) stretches 22 mi northward from Trenton, upstream along the east bank of the Delaware to Bull&#39;s Island near Frenchtown. The feeder canal collects water from higher elevations to the north, and feeds it to the highest section of the main canal, which flows generally north and east to the end, and had flowed south into the Crosswicks Creek at Bordentown. The total length of the entire canal system was approximately 66 mi. The main section was 44 mi long, 75 ft wide and 8 ft deep; the feeder was 22 mi long, 60 ft wide and 6 ft deep.</p><br>
<h3>Altered and abandoned sections</h3><br>
<p>A section of the main D&R Canal in Trenton has been covered over (the water still flows below) by the Trenton Freeway (USA Route 1) and is inaccessible to public use. The portion of the canal that provided access to the Delaware River in Bordentown is also abandoned. In Trenton it has been covered by Route 129, which opened in 1996. Another section south of Trenton is located in Hamilton Township, New Jersey between the southern boundary of Trenton and the Crosswicks Creek.The surviving, easternmost lock is also severed from the canal by Route 18 in New Brunswick.</p><br>
<h3>Locks and spillways</h3><br>
<p>Locks were used to overcome elevation differences along the D&R canal. Many of the locks are still present along the canal route; however, the lock gates have been replaced on the upstream side with small dams and water outfalls. The downstream gates have been removed, so the water in the locks is level with the water on the downstream side. Some of the locks have been buried or removed due to construction projects in the vicinity of the canal.</p><br>
<p>A number of spillways, which drained excess water from the canal into nearby waterways during periods of heavy flow, are located along the canal route. Spillways are evident as a dip in the towpath along the canal. Some have paving stones spaced closely enough for mules to walk, but are impassable for bicycles.</p><br>
<h2>Associated rivers</h2><br>
<p>Delaware River: Feeds the Delaware and Raritan Canal via a feeder canal that approaches from the north along the east bank of the Delaware River, starting at Bulls Island, to the southern terminus of the D&R Canal near Trenton.</p><br>
<p>Millstone River: Parallels the Delaware and Raritan Canal from Princeton north to Manville.</p><br>
<p>Raritan River: Parallels the Delaware and Raritan Canal from Manville north and east to New Brunswick. The northern terminus of the Delaware and Raritan Canal is in New Brunswick.</p><br>
<h2>Landmark</h2><br>
<p>The Delaware and Raritan Canal was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 11, 1973.</p><br>
<p>The many historic canal houses where the bridge tenders have lived (such as the Blackwells Mills Canal House and the Port Mercer Canal House) were listed as contributing properties.</p><br>
<h2>State Park</h2><br>
<p>In 1974, most of the canal system was declared a New Jersey state park. It is used for canoeing, kayaking, and fishing. A graded natural-surface trail along the side of the canal, which was the tow path that mules used to tow barges on the canal before steam powered barges, is now used for hiking, jogging, bicycling, and horseback riding. Some 36 mi of the main canal, and all 22 mi of the feeder canal, still exist. The feeder canal along the Delaware, being a former railroad rather than a towpath, is especially suited to bicycling. The park is operated and maintained by the New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry.</p><br>
<p>The canal is accessible from many points along its route, with small parking areas providing access at most road crossings. One of the most scenic and popular sections of the D&R Canal state park is the segment along Lake Carnegie in Princeton, New Jersey, which features the canal on one side of the path and the lake on the other side. Another attractive section borders the Colonial Park Arboretum and Gardens in East Millstone.</p><br>
<p>When the canal was used for transportation, New Jersey&#39;s landscape was mostly rural, and its primary business was agriculture. In the words of Howard Green, research director of the New Jersey Historical Commission, "Now it is one of the most beloved parks in the state, a sinewy, snake-like greenway through one of the most heavily populated parts of the world. It has gone from being the machine in the garden, to being garden in the machine."</p><br>
<h2>Folklore</h2><br>
<p>From 1972 onward, the canal developed a local legend. Residents of Griggstown, Franklin Township claimed to have seen a feral cow along the canal and the parallel Millstone River, said to be the ghost of one of many cows herded across and along the canal. The folklore endured for 30 years when, on November 23, 2002, an actual bull was found in a ditch, and was pulled out by local authorities only to be subsequently euthanized shortly afterward.</p><br>
<p>Fort Western is a former British colonial outpost at the head of navigation on the Kennebec River at modern Augusta, Maine, United States. It was built in 1754 during the French and Indian War, and is now a National Historic Landmark and local historic site owned by the city. Its main building, the only original element of the fort to survive, was restored in 1920 and now depicts its original use as a trading post.</p><br>
<h2>French and Indian War</h2><br>
<p>Fort Western was built by a Boston land company (the Kennebec Proprietors) in 1754 as a fortified trading post, and to promote settlement in the area. The fort was a log palisade with blockhouses which protected a store and warehouse. It was never directly attacked. From a high elevation a large rectangular enclosure commanded the river for more than a mile. Blockhouses 24 feet square and watch-boxes 12 feet square guarded opposite corners, and within stood a two-story main house 100 x. After the war ended, James Howard, its last commander, purchased the fort and operated the trading post.</p><br>
<h2>American Revolution</h2><br>
<p>After 1769, Fort Western fell into decay. In 1775, Benedict Arnold&#39;s expedition to Quebec stopped at Fort Western long enough to repair bateaux. Arnold, Daniel Morgan, Roger Enos, and Aaron Burr stayed as guests in the garrison while their force camped outside. Fort Western was the starting point for the march through the wilderness to Quebec.</p><br>
<h2>Old Fort Western</h2><br>
<p>The main building of the fort eventually passed out of the Howard family, and was converted into a tenement house. It was repurchased in Howard family descendants in 1919, and restored the following year, which included the construction of two new blockhouses and a stockade. The stockade was again rebuilt in 1960. Today its main building is a little-altered example of an 18th-century trading post. The fort and store are maintained as a museum and are open to the public during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>The fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973.</p><br>
<p>Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library is an American estate and museum in Winterthur, Delaware. Winterthur houses one of the richest collections of Americana in the United States. The museum and estate were the home of Henry Francis du Pont , Winterthur&#39;s founder and a prominent antiques collector and horticulturist.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Estate</h3><br>
<p>The property where Winterthur sits was purchased by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont (E. I. du Pont) between 1810 and 1818 and was used for farming and sheep-raising. In 1837, E. I du Ponts heirs sold 445 acres of the land to E. I.s business partner from France, Jacques Antoine Bidermann (1790–1865), and his wife Evelina Gabrielle du Pont (1796–1863) for the purpose of establishing their estate. Evelina was the second daughter of E. I. Du Ponts seven children. Between 1839 and 1842, the couple built a 12-room Greek revival manor house on the property and named their estate Winterthur after Bidermanns ancestral home in Winterthur, Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>After Bidermanns death, the property passed to his son, James Irénée, who then sold it to his uncle, Henry du Pont. Henry purchased the property for his son, Henry Algernon du Pont. Henry Algernon and his wife, (Mary) Pauline, settled at Winterthur in 1876 and enlarged the estates existing home. Upon his fathers 1889 death, Henry Algernon officially inherited the property and converted its main home to a French-style manor house. Between 1885 and 1925, Henry Algernon and Pauline added 900 acres to the property, which included pastures for Holstein cattle. After Paulines 1902 death and the election of Henry Algernon to Congress, their son, Henry Francis (H. F.) du Pont, took over management of the estate.</p><br>
<p>H. F. married Ruth Wales in 1916. In 1923, the couple traveled to Vermont to study the cattle-breeding operation of William Seward Webb. During the trip, they visited the home of Webbs daughter-in-law, Electra Havemeyer Webb, a collector of American decorative arts. H. F. later stated that this was when he became interested in collecting American antiques. During the same trip, the du Ponts also visited interior decorator Henry Davis Sleeper. Sleepers home was decorated with American antiques and interiors taken from other homes. This, too, inspired H.F. to start his own collection of Americana.</p><br>
<p>Henry Algernon died at the end of 1926, and Henry Francis du Pont officially inherited Winterthur in 1927. At the time, the estate consisted of 90 buildings and more than 2,600 acres. H. F. and Ruth renovated Winterthur&#39;s manor, tripling its size. They outfitted the home with architectural elements salvaged from 17th, 18th, and 19th century American homes in the region, including wood interior paneling from the Grahame House, Belle Isle, and Mordington. Rooms in the home were themed by time period.</p><br>
<h3>Museum</h3><br>
<p>Winterthur has been called the "largest and richest museum of American furniture and decorative arts in the world." It was formerly known as Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum and as the Winterthur Museum and Country Estate. By 1959, the museum had been expanded to accommodate a library, lecture halls, and additional period rooms. By the time of his death in 1969, H. F. had amassed a collection of between 50,000 and 70,000 objects. This includes rare silver from Marquand and Co.</p><br>
<p>The museum comprises several buildings. In 1969, a large building that houses the library and conservation facilities was dedicated in honor of H. F.&#39;s sister, a noted historic preservationist, and named the Louise du Pont Crowninshield Research Building.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, Winterthur assistant curator Phillip H. Curtis was sentenced to a 7-year suspended prison sentence for stealing museum artifacts (ceramics, candlesticks, and other American decorative arts) worth $75,000. Curtis sold the stolen items to art dealers to fund his lavish lifestyle. In 1991, John Quentin Feller, a professor at the University of Scranton and authority on Chinese export ceramics, attempted to steal a Chinese serving platter from Winterthur, part of a series of thefts of 100 objects from 8 museums over 18 years. Feller was sentenced to 18 months in federal prison.</p><br>
<h3>Directors</h3><br>
<p>Winterthur Museum has been led by eleven executive directors since its founding: Joseph Downs (1951–1954), Charles Franklin Montgomery (1954–1961), Edgar Preston Richardson (1962–1966), Charles van Ravenswaay (1966–1976), James Morton Smith (1976–1984), Thomas Ashley Graves Jr. (1985–1992), Dwight Lanmon (1992–1999), Leslie Greene Bowman (1999–2008), David Roselle (2008–2018), Carol Cadou (2018–2021), and Chris Strand (2021–present). The current Charles F. Montgomery Director and CEO of Winterthur is Chris Strand, who previously served as Winterthurs Brown Harrington Director of Garden and Estate and as interim CEO in the months following Cadous departure.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<h3>Museum</h3><br>
<p>Winterthur is located in northwestern Delaware, six miles north of Wilmington on Delaware Route 52. The museum and estate are situated on 979 acre, near Brandywine Creek, with 60 acre of naturalistic gardens.</p><br>
<p>The museum contains 175 period-room displays and approximately 90,000 objects. Most rooms are open to the public on small, guided tours. The collection spans more than two centuries of American decorative arts, notably from 1640 to 1860, and contains some of the most important pieces of American furniture and fine art.</p><br>
<p>In 2002, the National Gallery of Art hosted a guest exhibition of 300 objects curated by Winterthur staff. Antiques Roadshow filmed the first three episodes of its 24th season at Winterthur in 2019.</p><br>
<h3>Library</h3><br>
<p>Established in 1952, the Winterthur Library holds more than 87,000 rare books and over 800,000 manuscripts and images. The Winterthur Library is free and open to the public by appointment. Holdings include rare books, periodicals, trade catalogs, manuscripts, ephemera, photographs, slides, paper art, the archives of the Winterthur estate and museum, and other resources that support the needs of researchers in American history, decorative arts, architecture, horticulture, and other subjects. The Joseph Downs Collection of Manuscripts and Printed Ephemera was established in 1955, and the Waldron Phoenix Belknap Jr. Research Library of American Painting was formed circa 1956. The Winterthur Archives, which includes many of the du Pont familys personal papers, Winterthur estate records, and H. F.s history of collecting, was formed in 1969 after H. F.&#39;s death.</p><br>
<p>The librarys origins go back to Pierre Samuel du Pont, the family patriarch, who collected 8,000 books before his death in 1817. Ensuing generations of the family continued to grow the collection, with Henry Francis du Pont avidly acquiring rare books for display, particularly 17th-century and 18th-century books with old binding. By the 1940s, H. F. was building a scholarly research collection as part of his plan to transform Winterthur into a museum and teaching institution. Frank Sommer, the first library director, and museum curator Charles F. Montgomery intensified collection development ahead of the 1952 launch of Winterthurs first graduate program, in partnership with the University of Delaware. In 1969, the library moved from the main museum to the Crowninshield Research Building, which also houses extensive conservation, research, and education facilities.</p><br>
<h3>Gardens and grounds</h3><br>
<p>H. F. du Pont, a horticulturalist, began managing the estates grounds in 1909. He contracted a landscape architect, Marian Cruger Coffin, to assist with the design of 70 acres of the estates gardens and a model 2400-acre farm. The estate had twelve temperature controlled greenhouses, a 23-acre orchard, a 5.5-acre vegetable garden, and a 4-acre cutting garden. It also had a butcher shop, a saw mill, a tannery, and a dairy where H. F. continued to breed and raise award-winning Holstein cattle. There are at least 6 garden follies throughout the grounds, which were featured in an exhibition that ran from 2018 to 2020. A narrated tram ride through the gardens is available from March through December.</p><br>
<p>One of the sources who inspired the landscaping at Winterthur was William Robinson, whose book The Wild Garden, published in 1870, recommended mixing large groupings of hardy plantings in natural landscapes. The colors of the plantings have been carefully selected, featuring hundreds of species and hybrid varieties of rhododendrons and azaleas, as well as peonies, forsythia, daffodils, lilacs, mountain laurel, and dogwood. The grounds also offer a pinetum with various types of conifers, such as firs, spruce and hemlocks.</p><br>
<p>Chandler Farm, a Federal-style historic house on the Winterthur grounds, is used as the home for the director and chief executive of Winterthur.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, Winterthur began offering paid internships for aspiring horticulturists and stewards of natural lands, who can reside temporarily on the Estate.</p><br>
<p>In 2002, Winterthur donated a conservation easement on its acreage to the Brandywine Conservation Trust, ensuring that the land would never be developed.</p><br>
<h3>Graduate programs</h3><br>
<p>Winterthur and the University of Delaware jointly founded and continue to offer two master&#39;s degree programs in American material culture (established in 1952 by museum director Charles F. Montgomery) and art conservation (established in 1974). As of August 1998, the programs had graduated 580 students, including 209 from the conservation program, which is one of only five graduate programs in the field in North America.</p><br>
<p>Winterthur offers residential, short-term, and remote fellowships, including postdoctoral, dissertation, and artist fellowships, to support researchers using the collections.</p><br>
<h3>Journal</h3><br>
<p>Since 1964, Winterthur has published a peer-reviewed interdisciplinary journal entitled Winterthur Portfolio: A Journal of American Material Culture and distributed by the University of Chicago Press. The journal is indexed in the MLA International Bibliography, Scopus, Web of Science, and other research databases.</p><br>
<h2>Display facilities</h2><br>
<p>Main museum (period rooms and offices),</p><br>
<p>The Cottage (home of H. F. du Pont after opening of the museum),</p><br>
<p>The Galleries, display area</p><br>
<p>Research Building</p><br>
<p>Visitors Center</p><br>
<p>The Hagley Museum and Library is a nonprofit educational institution in unincorporated New Castle County, Delaware, near Wilmington. Covering more than 235 acre along the banks of the Brandywine Creek, the museum and grounds include the first du Pont family home and garden in the United States, the powder yards, and a 19th-century machine shop. On the hillside below the mansion lies a Renaissance Revival garden, with terraces and statuary, created in the 1920s by Louise Evelina du Pont Crowninshield .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1802, French immigrant Éleuthère Irénée du Pont founded black powder mills on the banks of Brandywine Creek after purchasing the property in 1801 for $6,700. He chose the location for the rivers tumble over the Fall Line which provided power, timber and willow trees (used to produce quality charcoal required for superior black powder), the proximity to the Delaware River (on which other ingredients of the powder – sulfur and saltpeter – could be shipped); and the quarries of gneiss that would provide construction materials for the mills. The E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Companys black powder factory became the largest in the world.</p><br>
<p>In 1921, the mills along the Brandywine closed and parcels of the property were sold. Plans for a museum were established 31 years later, on the occasion of the DuPont Company&#39;s 150th anniversary in 1952.</p><br>
<h3>Origin of the name</h3><br>
<p>Hagley historians only know that the name was already in use well before E.I. du Pont expanded downstream from Eleutherian Mills in 1813 by purchasing the land that became the Hagley Yards. An 1813 document refers to the land as Hagley and it had been called Hagley as early as 1797, when its owner, Philadelphia Quaker merchant Rumford Dawes, applied for insurance on buildings that were said to be located in a place called Hagley on the Brandywine. Dawes had acquired the property in 1783. Since the name Hagley did not appear on the documents transferring ownership at that time, it seems likely that Dawes gave this name to the Brandywine location.</p><br>
<p>It seems likely that Delawares Hagley was named for an English estate, Hagley Hall that was well known in the second half of the eighteenth century. It is likely that Dawes chose the name based on an English narrative poem entitled The Seasons by James Thomson. Hagley Hall was the seat of Thomsons patron the Baron Lyttelton, and the poems description of a sylvan dale is strikingly reminiscent of the Brandywine Valley. The Seasons was popular in Philadelphia at the time that Rumford Dawes acquired and named Hagley. The English Hagley estate is located in the West Midlands countryside about ten miles southwest of Birmingham. Perhaps coincidentally, Delawares Hagley is about 8 miles south of Chadds Ford Township, officially known as Birmingham Township before 1996.</p><br>
<p>Plantation on the Waccamaw River in South Carolina got its name when the owners, who were admirers of English culture, chose the name to remind them of the well-known parkland of that name near London.</p><br>
<h2>Operations</h2><br>
<p>Opened in 1957, the Hagley Museum features exhibits and demonstrations that show the connections between early industrial technology and early American history, focusing on the histories of the du Pont family, DuPont company, explosives and gunpowder, and innovation (through a large collection of American Patent models). There are indoor and outdoor exhibitions, along with restored mills, a workers community, and the original home of the du Pont family with an attached garden.</p><br>
<p>The Museum also explores personal stories of the 19th-century DuPont Company employees, how they lived, and how their lifestyles changed along with new machinery and new production methods. Visitors can ride a narrated bus tour, through the Powder Yard Trail and is the only way to the home.</p><br>
<h2>Library</h2><br>
<p>The Eleutherian Mills Historical Library was dedicated on October 7, 1961. It was renamed as the Hagley Library in 1984.</p><br>
<p>Hagley&#39;s library houses a major research collection of manuscripts, archives, photographs, pamphlets, and books documenting the history of American business and technology. A member of the Independent Research Libraries Association, the library serves scholars from this country and abroad. Holdings include 37,000 linear feet in the Manuscripts and Archives Department, 290,000 printed volumes in the Imprints Department, 2 million visual items in the Pictorial Department, and more than 300,000 digital images and pages in the Digital Archives Department. The library and archival collections owned by Hagley are open to the public for research; a catalog and partial digital archive are available online.</p><br>
<p>The library includes the Center for the History of Business, Technology, and Society, which coordinates Hagley&#39;s interactions with the world of scholarship in the fields of American economic, business, and technological history. The center offers a scholar-in-residence program and competitive fellowships. It also hosts the Business History Conference, the largest US-based professional organization of business historians, and the editorial office of the peer-reviewed journal, Enterprise & Society.</p><br>
<h2>E. I. du Pont residence complex</h2><br>
<p>On the property is the home of Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, who built the Georgian-style home and surrounding buildings and gardens to serve as a center for familial and business life. The home was inhabited by five generations of the du Pont family, with many pieces of furniture, American folk art, and family pieces brought from France still on view. Other buildings that are a part of the complex are a barn, the "First Office" of the company, Lammot du Pont Workshop, and the garden.</p><br>
<p>The estate home was the first residence of the du Pont family in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds and plants</h2><br>
<p>Located on the property are multiple national and state ranked trees. One, an Osage orange tree, was named a Co-National Champion Tree in 2011 and featured in the Delaware Forestry Service&#39;s "Big Trees of Delaware" but was partially felled by a storm in August 2020. The tree was speculated to have been over 300 years old or planted via seeds brought back from the Lewis and Clark expedition. Two other trees felled during the storm were state champions, including a 90-foot tall sugar maple and a 62-foot tall shingle oak.</p><br>
<h2>Depiction in media</h2><br>
<p>The Museum was featured on Mysteries at the Museum television show.</p><br>
<h2>Timeline</h2><br>
<p>November 1952: The Eleutherian Mills-Hagley Foundation, a non-profit, educational corporation received its charter from the State of Delaware.</p><br>
<p>May 1957: Hagley Museum was dedicated with the opening of the Henry Clay Mill building.</p><br>
<p>1961: The Longwood Library, founded in 1954 by Pierre S. du Pont, merged with Hagley Museum and opened at the site of the original DuPont Company&#39;s powder works at Hagley.</p><br>
<p>1962: Eleutherian Mills, the du Pont family&#39;s ancestral home, was opened to the public.</p><br>
<p>1966: Designation of museum property as a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>1969: Restoration of the first DuPont company office was completed.</p><br>
<p>1971: Restoration of the E.I. du Pont Garden began.</p><br>
<p>1982: Workers Hill opened. First fireworks show produced for Hagley members in honor of the museums 25th anniversary. The annual fireworks continues on two weekends in June.</p><br>
<p>1984: Hagley Museum and Library was designated as the official name of the institution. (Eleutherian Mills-Hagley Foundation continued as the legal corporation name of the organization.)</p><br>
<p>1996: Hagleys first car show, 100 Years of Cars, held to honor 100 years of Americas automotive heritage. The annual car show continues on the third Sunday in September.</p><br>
<p>1999: The kitchen in Hagley&#39;s Eleutherian Mills opens to visitors.</p><br>
<p>2002: Two new exhibits, "DuPont Science and Discovery" and "DuPont: The Explosives Era", open at Hagley in honor of the DuPont corporation&#39;s 200th anniversary.</p><br>
<p>2007: Accessible entrance to Visitors Center welcomes visitors to the museum&#39;s 50th anniversary exhibit, "Hagley at Fifty: Exploding with History."</p><br>
<p>Aztalan State Park is a Wisconsin state park in the Town of Aztalan, Jefferson County. Established in 1952, it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park covers 172 acre along the Crawfish River.</p><br>
<p>Aztalan is the site of an ancient Mississippian culture settlement that flourished during the 10th to 13th centuries. The indigenous people constructed massive earthwork mounds for religious and political purposes. They were part of a widespread culture with important settlements throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Their trading network extended from the Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast, and into the Southeast of the present-day United States.</p><br>
<h2>Pre-history (900–1300)</h2><br>
<p>Aztalan was first settled around 900 CE by a Native American culture known as the Middle Mississippian tradition. The chief center of a Middle Mississippian settlement is at Cahokia, in present-day Illinois, a city that at its peak had 20,000–30,000 people. This was not surpassed by Europeans in North America until after 1800. These settlements are characterized by the construction of earthwork mounds, stockades, and houses, by decorated Mississippian culture pottery, and agricultural practices. There are also elements of the Woodland culture found there.</p><br>
<p>The residents of Aztalan had long-distance trading relationships with other settlements, linked by their use of the rivers for transportation. For example, items found at the settlement include copper from Michigan&#39;s Upper Peninsula, seashells from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and stone such as Mill Creek chert from other areas of the Midwest.</p><br>
<p>Sometime between 1200 and 1300 CE, the Aztalan settlement was abandoned. Archeologists and historians surmise they may have outgrown environmental resources, or encountered more warfare from other cultures, but do not know for sure. The Little Ice Age occurred soon after 1300 and may have contributed to farming difficulties, putting too much stress on the local chiefdoms.</p><br>
<h3>Life in Aztalan</h3><br>
<p>Most of the residents lived in circular or rectangular houses which they built between the river and the eastern secondary wall. The placement of the structures suggests that the layout was planned. The dwellings were built around a central ceremonial plaza likely used for rituals and public gatherings, as has been found at similar locations. Posts for the house frames were placed either in individual holes, or in a trench dug slightly narrower than the posts. The walls were completed with wattle and daub, a plaster mixture of grass and clay. The roof was covered with bark or thatch. The doorway usually faced south to keep out the winter&#39;s north winds. Inside, a single family slept on pole-frame beds, covered with tamarack boughs, deer skins, and furs. Sometimes a fire was kept in the middle of the house and a hole in the roof let out the smoke. Storage pits dug in the earthen floor of the house held foods such as corn, nuts, and seeds in woven bags. Perishable foods such as meat were most likely stored outside prior to cooking. Refuse pits for garbage and community storage pits were located outside.</p><br>
<p>The site was well chosen to provide a variety of food sources, and other resources. The staple of the diet was cultivated corn (maize), and other plants were also gathered as food, such as acorns, hickory nuts, and berries. Tobacco was grown at this time for sacred rituals, as tobacco seeds have been found at this site. The main source of meat was deer, especially in the winter. The people also caught and ate beaver, elk, fox, muskrats, and raccoons. They hunted birds and turtles, collected mussels, and caught fish in the Crawfish River directly next to the site. To help with fishing, the people set up rock barriers called fish weirs at key points, one of which is visible when the river is low. They caught catfish, bass, suckers, buffalo fish, pike, drum fish, and gar. They disposed of the thousands of shells from consumed mussels in middens. These have layers of shells several feet thick.</p><br>
<p>The people living here gathered food and resources for tools and building. Other materials were obtained through trade. Trees nearby provided wood for posts for house walls and stockades, bows and arrow shafts, and firewood. Smaller tree branches and grass were used for bedding and roofs. Shells were used to make jewelry, beads, spoons, and digging tools. The people dug river clay to use in fashioning fired pottery. Traded items, used for ornamental or ceremonial purposes, were an attribute of status because of their rarity.</p><br>
<h3>Physical features</h3><br>
<p>The most obvious features of Aztalan are its pyramid-shaped, flat-topped platform mounds and the stockades, believed to have served both ceremonial and defensive functions.</p><br>
<h4>Mounds</h4><br>
<p>Three platform mounds remain on the site. The largest is the one in the southwest corner of the stockade; one almost as large is located in the northwest corner. The smallest of the three is along the east side of the settlement, near the Crawfish River (labeled "West Branch of Rock River" on the plates). The hill in the southeast corner is a natural gravel knoll, not built by the inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The largest mound was built in three stages, with a set of steps leading to the top, where a structure was built over the entire flat top. The mound was covered with a clay cap, probably to enhance its appearance. Corn was stored in pits inside the structure. Scholars have several theories about why the corn was kept there, and the overall purpose of the structure. It may have been the storage facility for the entire village, or storage for food just for the top village officials; it may have been used for ceremonies and rituals; or it could have been a house for the village officials. This topmost structure was rebuilt each time a larger stage of the mound was built on top of the old.</p><br>
<p>The northwestern mound, used for formal burial, was also built in three stages. A special structure, approximately 4 by, with its long axis towards the northeast–southwest, was built on the west side of the mound. Its doorway was in its southwest corner, and the structure was covered with a mixture of clay, willow branches, and grass. The floor was covered with a mat of what may have been cattails. The bodies of ten people were placed side by side on this, with their heads toward the doorway. The bones of another person were bundled together with cord and placed near them. Once this construction was complete, and the bodies were inside, the building was burned.</p><br>
<p>The eastern mound had a large open-walled structure, about 12 by, built on top of it, with firepits lined with white sand inside. The function of this mound and structure remain unclear.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, to the northwest of the stockaded area, a row of round mounds extends northward. When archaeologists excavated in these mounds during the 1920s, they did not find the burial sites they had expected. Instead, each mound had a large post set in a pit in its center, surrounded by gravel and soil, with the pit capped with clay and gravel to hold the post steady. These mounds have been termed "marker mounds" because they may have been used to mark the site for travelers, but this is not certain. They may also have been used for announcements, message relays, or for calculations of astronomical phenomena, as has been found at other Mississippian sites, such as Cahokia.</p><br>
<h4>Stockade</h4><br>
<p>The settlement was surrounded on the north, west, and south sides by a palisade, a wall of logs set vertically into the ground. Narrow holes were dug into the ground, then the posts were lifted into position and set into the holes. The stockade was finished by people weaving flexible willow branches through the posts, and plastering the whole with a mixture of clay and grass to fill in the gaps, a technique similar to wattle and daub.</p><br>
<p>At some point, a smaller stockade was built within the outer one to delimit the dwelling areas. Archeologists have not been able to determine whether both stockades existed simultaneously, for a layered defense, or one was built after the other fell into disuse.</p><br>
<p>In 1850, Increase A. Lapham, an author, scientist, and naturalist, surveyed the site on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, which was surveying ancient mounds. He described the outer stockade as being "631 ft long at the north end, 1,149 ft long on the west side and 700 ft on the south side; making a total length of wall of 2,750 ft. The ridge or wall is about 22 ft, and from 1 ft to 5 ft) in height". It had at least 33 square bastions at regular intervals along its length, similar in form and placement to some European fortifications, to allow defensive warriors to cover that area by shooting arrows. In addition, others were built along the secondary walls. Rather than having a gate to protect the entrance, the builders constructed the entrance so that it was camouflaged from direct view and blended in with the wall on either side.</p><br>
<p>During the time Aztalan was inhabited, two sets of outer stockades were built. The posts of the first one eventually rotted, and the second one burned and was never rebuilt. It is not clear whether the purpose of the stockade was to keep out invaders, or if the occupants built it for another reason.</p><br>
<h2>Modern discovery (1835–1919)</h2><br>
<p>A young man named Timothy Johnson discovered the ruins of the ancient settlement in December 1835. In January 1836, N. F. Hyer conducted the first rough survey of the site, and published his discovery in the Milwaukie Advertiser of January 1837.</p><br>
<p>According to Lapham:</p><br>
<p>The name Aztalan was given to this place by Mr. Hyer, because, according to Humboldt, the Aztecs, or ancient inhabitants of Mexico, had a tradition that their ancestors came from a country at the north, which they called Aztalan; and the possibility that these may have been remains of their occupancy, suggested the idea of restoring the name. It is made up of two Mexican words, atl, water, and an, near; and the country was probably so named from its proximity to large bodies of water. Hence the natural inference that the country about these great lakes was the ancient residence of the Aztecs.</p><br>
<p>Hyer wrote, "We are determined to preserve these ruins from being ruined." However, in 1838, President Martin Van Buren refused a request by Massachusetts statesman Edward Everett to withdraw the site from public sale, and it was sold for $22. In the following years, the surface was plowed, the mounds were leveled for easier farming, pottery shards and "Aztalan brick" were hauled away by the wagonload to fill in potholes in township roads, and souvenir hunters took numerous artifacts.</p><br>
<p>In 1850, Lapham urged the preservation of the stockade. At the time, the stockade was still standing, though not in the condition it had once been.</p><br>
<h2>State park foundation and reconstruction (1919–present)</h2><br>
<p>In 1919, archeological excavations began at Aztalan under the direction of Dr. S. A. Barrett.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the Landmarks Committee of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, under Publius V. Lawson, started a new effort to save what remained of Aztalan, supported by the Friends of Our Native Landscape and the Wisconsin Archeological Society. They made their first purchase of some of the land in 1921, 3 acre) west of the stockade and containing eight conical mounds, and presented it to the Wisconsin Archeological Society.</p><br>
<p>Work for preservation continued. In 1936, the state&#39;s archeological and historical societies petitioned the federal government for funds to reconstruct the stockade, without success, although during the Great Depression the US funded archeological work and preservation at numerous ancient sites around the country. In 1941, the newly founded Lake Mills-Aztalan Historical Society began an energetic campaign to preserve the stockade area.</p><br>
<p>In 1945, the Wisconsin State Assembly passed a bill directing the State Planning Board to study the possibility of establishing a state park at Aztalan. In 1947, the Wisconsin State Legislature passed a resolution requesting the State Conservation Commission to purchase Aztalan. 120 acre were purchased to this end in 1948, and the Wisconsin Archeological Society and the Lake Mills-Aztalan Historical Society donated their holdings. Aztalan opened to the public in 1952 as Aztalan State Park.</p><br>
<p>Aztalan was designated a registered National Historic Landmark in 1964 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. In 1968, the state reconstructed portions of the stockade wall by placing new posts in the original holes. A section of this was also covered with the wattle and daub, but this has since worn away or been removed.</p><br>
<p>Rugby is an unincorporated community in Morgan and Scott counties in the USA state of Tennessee. Founded in 1880 by English author Thomas Hughes, Rugby was built as an experimental utopian colony. While Hughess experiment largely failed, a small community lingered at Rugby throughout the 20th century. In the 1960s, residents, friends and descendants of Rugby began restoring the original design and layout of the community, preserving surviving structures and reconstructing others. Rugbys Victorian architecture and picturesque setting have since made it a popular tourist attraction. In 1972, Rugby&#39;s historic area was listed under the name Rugby Colony on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district.</p><br>
<p>The Rugby experiment grew out of the social and economic conditions of Victorian England, where the practice of primogeniture and an economic depression had left many of the "second sons" of the English gentry jobless and idle. Hughes envisioned Rugby as a colony where Englands second sons would have a chance to own land and be free of social and moral ills that plagued late-19th-century English cities. The colony would reject late Victorian materialism in favor of the Christian socialist ideals of equality and cooperation espoused in Hughess Tom Brown&#39;s School Days.</p><br>
<p>From the outset, however, the colony was beset with problems, namely a typhoid epidemic in 1881, lawsuits over land titles, and a population unaccustomed to the hard manual labor required to extract crops from the poor soil of the Cumberland Plateau. By late 1887, most of the original colonists had either died or moved away from Rugby. However, a few carried on into the 20th century and the village retained a small, continuous population.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Rugby is located atop the Cumberland Plateau near the junction of Morgan, Scott, and Fentress counties. While it straddles the two former counties, the majority of it lies in Morgan County. On the north side of Rugby, the Clear Fork joins White Oak Creek to form a natural pool known as "The Meeting of the Waters" that has been a popular hiking destination since the colony&#39;s early days. Beyond Meeting-of-the-Waters, the Clear Fork continues northeastward for another 9 mi to where it joins New River to form the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River.</p><br>
<p>State Route 52 passed through the town, until December 2013 when the "Rugby Bypass" opened, connecting it with USA Route 127 in Jamestown to the west and USA Route 27 in the community of Elgin to the east. The area is relatively remote, with the 125,000 acre Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area dominating the area to the north, and sparsely-populated rolling hills stretching for miles to the south. Most of the historic district is located on or near Tennessee state highway 52. A more modern residential area is located in the Beacon Hill section on the north side of the community.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Establishment</h3><br>
<p>Thomas Hughes was born in Uffington, Oxfordshire, England in 1822. In the 1830s, he attended the Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire, where he was greatly influenced by the schools progressive headmaster, Thomas Arnold. Both Rugby School and Arnold figured prominently in Hughess 1857 novel, Tom Browns School Days, and the school would eventually be the namesake for Hughess utopian colony in Tennessee. In Tom Browns School Days, Hughes espoused the ideals of Christian socialism, namely the cooperative ownership of community businesses. By the 1860s, Hughes had grown disenchanted with the materialism of late Victorian England. He was disheartened by the fact that the talents of many of Englands younger sons were wasted due to an economic recession and the medieval system of primogeniture, in which the oldest son inherited all of the family&#39;s land.</p><br>
<p>In 1870, Hughes traveled to America to meet his friend, the poet James Russell Lowell, and learned of the Boston-based Board of Aid to Land Ownership, which specialized in helping unemployed urban craftsmen relocate to rural areas. Hughes indicated that such an operation might also be beneficial to young, unemployed English gentry. In 1878, Board of Aid president Franklin Webster Smith and an agent with the new Cincinnati Southern Railway, Cyrus Clarke, were travelling on the railroads new tracks along the Cumberland Plateau when they identified the future site of Rugby, and were impressed with its virgin forests, clear air, and scenic gorges. Clarke secured options on hundreds of thousands of acres of Plateau land. Knoxville attorney Oliver Perry Temple, who became the colonys legal and agricultural advisor, began the complicated process of securing land titles.</p><br>
<p>Smith returned to Boston to recruit families to move to the newly acquired land on the Plateau, but economic conditions in the northeast had improved, and few families were interested in relocating. Smith then notified Hughes of the Board&#39;s new land acquisitions, and Hughes expressed interest in establishing a colony. Hughes formed a partnership with British lawyers Sir Henry Kimber and John Boyle, and bought the Board of Aid.</p><br>
<h3>Rugby Colony, 1880&ndash;1887</h3><br>
<p>Franklin W. Smith, who was primarily responsible for Rugbys early layout, chose the townsite for Rugby for its resort-like qualities, even though it was 7 mi from the nearest railroad stop at Sedgemoor (modern-day Elgin, Tennessee). The colonys first frame structure, known as the "Asylum" (now the Pioneer Cottage), was erected in early 1880, and the first wave of colonists constructed tennis and croquet courts, and built a walkway to "The Meeting of the Waters." Within a few months, several residences had been completed, along with the three-story Tabard Inn, which was named for the Southwark hostelry in Canterbury Tales.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hughes was on hand for the colonys "opening" on October 5, 1880, and gave a speech that laid out his plans for Rugby. All colonists would be required to invest $5 in the commissary, thus ensuring public ownership. Personal freedoms were guaranteed, although the sale of alcohol was banned. The colony would build an Episcopal church, but the building could be used by any denomination. On opening day, Tennessees Episcopal bishop, the Right Reverend Charles Quintard, chartered Christ Church and licensed colonist Joseph Blacklock as lay reader.</p><br>
<p>American publications such as The New York Times and Harpers Weekly and London publications such as The Spectator, Saturday Review, and Punch, all followed the colonys progress. Rugby published its own newspaper, The Rugbeian, which was edited by Oxford graduate Osmond Dakeyne, and several colonists formed a Library and Reading Room Society, headed by Tübingen graduate Edward Bertz, who was a long-term friend of the late nineteenth century English author George Gissing, with whom he corresponded over many years. In summer 1881, a typhoid outbreak killed seven colonists&mdash;including Dakeyne&mdash;and forced the Tabard Inn to close for cleansing, but the colony recovered. By 1884, the colony boasted over 400 residents, 65 frame public buildings and houses, a tennis team, a social club, and a literary and dramatic society. In 1885, Rugby established a university, Arnold School, named for Rugby School headmaster Thomas Arnold.</p><br>
<h3>Struggle and decline</h3><br>
<p>Throughout its early history, Rugby was beset with lawsuits over land titles. While Cyrus Clarke had obtained options on nearly 350,000 acre of land, many of the Plateaus Appalachian natives grew suspicious of Clarke and refused to sell their property. This slowed the colonys early development, and as the lawsuits dragged on, many colonists gave up and moved away. Furthermore, Smith, who had selected the townsite, had ignored the sites poor soil in favor of its potential as a mountain resort. Rugbys main resort hotel, the Tabard, was forced to close due to the typhoid outbreak in 1881, and burned down altogether in 1884, halting Rugbys burgeoning tourist economy and damaging the Board of Aids credit.</p><br>
<p>Frustrated by the colonys slow development, the Board of Aids London backers replaced colony director John Boyle with Irish-born Cincinnati city engineer Robert Walton in May 1882. Rugby attempted to establish a tomato canning operation in 1883, but after the cannery was constructed, colonists failed to grow enough tomatoes to keep it operational. Newspapers began to ridicule Rugby, with London&#39;s Daily News accusing Hughes of creating a "pleasure picnic" rather than a functioning colony, and The New York Times claiming that Hughes was planning to abandon the colony altogether.</p><br>
<p>In 1887, the deaths of a number of prominent colonists&mdash;including Hughess mother, Margaret, and geologist Charles Wilson&mdash;led to the departure of most of Rugbys original settlers. That year, Hughes made his last annual visit to the colony, and The Rugbeian ceased publication. In 1892, Sir Henry Kimber reorganized the Board of Aid as the Rugby Tennessee Company, which focused on harvesting the region&#39;s natural resources, all but abandoning the anti-materialistic ideals on which the colony was founded. By 1900, the company had sold its Cumberland Plateau holdings.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>Robert Waltons son, William (1887&ndash;1958), maintained the Thomas Hughes Library, the Christ Church Episcopal, and Kingstone Lisle until the mid-20th century. During the same period, Uffington House was maintained by the family of C.C. Brooks. Conservation efforts at Rugby began in the 1940s when logging practices were decimating the surrounding virgin forests. The efforts were publicized by The New York Times and The Washington Post, and gained federal support with the aide of Secretary of State Cordell Hull, but the state of Tennessee rejected the logging companies offering price for the land, and the forest was cut right up to the community&#39;s boundaries.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, preservationists formed Historic Rugby, a non-profit group dedicated to restoring and maintaining the communitys surviving historic structures, which include the Christ Church Episcopal, the Thomas Hughes Library, the Rugby School, Kingstone Lisle, Uffington House, and Newbury House. The group has also reconstructed several buildings based on their original designs, including the Board of Aid office, the Rugby Commissary, and Sir Henry Kimbers Percy Cottage. The Harrow Road Cafe, a restaurant built in the 1980s, was named for a restaurant that existed at Rugby in the 1880s, although its original design is unknown. The Cafe was destroyed by fire on September 4, 2020. The Rugby Printing Works, which originally stood at nearby Deer Lodge, was moved to Rugby in the 1970s. Historic Rugby opened up the communitys Beacon Hill area (originally planned to include residences and a park) to new home construction, with the condition that all new homes must be designed in accordance with the communitys Victorian aesthetic.</p><br>
<h2>Notable buildings</h2><br>
<h3>Christ Church Episcopal</h3><br>
<p>The Christ Church Episcopal was established on October 5, 1880, and initially used the original Rugby schoolhouse for services. The current building was built in the Carpenter Gothic style in 1887 by Cornelius Onderdonk, who constructed many of the original buildings in Rugby, and consecrated by Episcopal bishop Charles Quintard in 1888. The churchs alms basin was designed by English carpenter Henry Fry, who had previously done work for various churches in the London area. The churchs reed organ, built in 1849, is one of the oldest in the United States. The Christ Church parish has met here regularly since 1887.</p><br>
<h3>Thomas Hughes Library</h3><br>
<p>Built in 1882, the Thomas Hughes Library is the most unchanged of all the buildings in Rugby. The librarys 7,000 volumes were collected primarily by Boston bookseller Estes & Lauriat, and donated to Rugbys Library and Reading Room Society with the stipulation they name the new library for Hughes. The library still contains most of its original collection, the oldest volume of which dates to 1687. German-born colonist Edward Bertz, Rugby&#39;s first librarian, published a book about his Rugby experiences, entitled Das Sabinergut, in 1896.</p><br>
<h3>Kingstone Lisle</h3><br>
<p>Kingstone Lisle, a Queen Anne-style cottage, was built in 1884 as a residence for Thomas Hughes, although Hughes stayed at the cottage for just a very short period on one of his annual visits (he usually stayed at the Newbury House). In the late 1880s, Hughes gave the house to Christ Church priest Joseph Blacklock for use as a rectory. Historic Rugby restored the house in the 1960s, and has outfitted it with period furniture.</p><br>
<h3>Comprehensive list of historical structures</h3><br>
<p>Captain Jack&#39;s Stronghold was a holdout of the Modoc people that is located between Tulelake and Canby, California. The stronghold, which is now part of Lava Beds National Monument, is named for Native American chief Kintpuash who was also known as Captain Jack. During the Modoc War in 1873, Captain Jack along with 53 Modoc warriors, and numerous women and children in a band of 160, managed to hold out against the United States Army which outnumbered them by as much as 10 to 1 for several months.</p><br>
<p>The Modoc retreated to this area because it was part of their traditional territory where they had hunted and lived before the start of the California genocide, when agents of the United States government assisted by private citizens began the systematic killing of thousands of indigenous peoples of California in the mid-19th century. Many of the brutal acts carried out against native populations were encouraged, tolerated, and perpetuated by state authorities and militias.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After the Battle of Lost River in November 1872, Captain Jack&#39;s band settled into the area around stronghold for several months. The Modoc used the lava beds as a defensive stronghold because of the rough terrain, rocks that could be used in fortification, and irregular pathways to evade pursuers.</p><br>
<p>On January 17, 1873 a combined USA Army command of 225 soldiers supported by 104 Oregon and California volunteers were defeated by 51 Modoc warriors at the First Battle of the Stronghold. A total of 35 Whites were killed and many wounded while the Modoc suffered no deaths or serious injuries. The Second Battle of the Stronghold took place on April 15–17. After getting additional reinforcements, the US force captured the stronghold&#39;s spring as well as cutting off access to Tule Lake. The attack resulted in the death of one officer and six enlisted men while thirteen soldiers were wounded. Reportedly the only Modoc casualty was a boy who was killed when a cannonball he tried to open with an axe, exploded and several Modoc women who died from sickness.</p><br>
<p>After being cut off from their only water sources, the Modoc escaped on April 17. They used a crevice that had been left unguarded while US troops were moved from one position to another in preparation for the final assault on the stronghold. Over the next few weeks, most of the band were caught. The last group, which was made up of Captain Jack, John Schonchin, Black Jim, and Boston Charley, were finally captured on June 1, 1873. After being convicted of murdering General Edward Canby and Reverend Eleazer Thomas at a peace parley in April 1873, Captain Jack and the three others were hanged on October 3, 1873, at Fort Klamath. Canby would be the only US general to be killed in the Indian Wars.</p><br>
<h2>Historic site</h2><br>
<p>On June 1, 1932, Captain Jack&#39;s Stronghold was designated "California Historical Landmark #9".</p><br>
<p>The Puck Building is a mixed-use building at 295–309 Lafayette Street in the SoHo and Nolita neighborhoods of Manhattan in New York City, United States. An example of the German Rundbogenstil style of architecture, the building was designed by Albert Wagner and is composed of two sections: the original seven-story building to the north and a nine-story southern annex. The Lafayette Street elevation of the facade was designed by Herman Wagner in a similar style to the original building. The Puck Building is a New York City designated landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The Puck Building occupies the block bounded by Lafayette, Houston, Mulberry, and Jersey streets. The facade is made of red brick and is divided vertically into bays of uniform width. The facade is also divided horizontally into several tiers of arcades, with wider arches at the top and narrower arches at the bottom. The sculptor Henry Baerer created two sculptures of the Shakespeare character Puck for the facade. The building is topped by a penthouse structure. The original interiors were arranged as open plan offices, which largely remained intact in the late 20th century. There is retail space in the basement and first two stories; office and studio space on the intermediate stories; and six penthouse apartments on the highest stories.</p><br>
<p>The building was the longtime home of Puck magazine, a humor cartoon whose founders Joseph Keppler and Adolph Schwarzmann acquired the site in 1885 with J. Ottmann. The original building was completed the following year, and the annex was built between 1892 and 1893. When Lafayette Street was extended through the neighborhood in the late 1890s, the western section of the building was demolished, and a new facade and entrance were built on Lafayette Street. Puck magazine went out of business in 1918, and the structure was used by printing firms over the next several decades. Paul Serra&#39;s family bought the Puck Building in 1978, and Serra and his partner Peter Gee converted it to commercial condominiums, which were completed in 1983. A syndicate led by Harry Skydell bought the Puck Building in 1986 and renovated it further. Kushner Properties, a partner in the syndicate, took over the building in the 1990s. The lowest stories were converted to a store in 2011, and Kushner Properties added penthouse apartments there between 2011 and 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The Puck Building is at 295–309 Lafayette Street, The land lot is quadrilateral and measures around 23,397 ft2. Across the street to the southeast are St. Patricks Old Cathedral and St. Patricks Old Cathedral School.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the construction of the Puck Building, the site had been occupied by St. Catherines Convent, which was built by the Order of the Sisters of Mercy in 1848. The convent was located at 35 East Houston Street, and the adjacent House of Mercy was at 33 East Houston Street. When the building was erected in the 1880s, it was at the southern end of Manhattans printing district, These firms had settled in the neighborhood in part because of their proximity to the New York and New Haven Railroad&#39;s freight terminal, which was several blocks south on Canal Street between Centre and Lafayette streets.</p><br>
<p>At the time of the building&#39;s construction, Lafayette Street did not exist at the intersection with Houston Street. What is now known as Lafayette Street was two separate streets: Lafayette Place to the north and Elm Street to the south. These two streets were connected between 1897 and 1905. Before the original building was truncated, it carried an address of 31–39 East Houston Street.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Puck Building was designed by Albert Wagner and was built for Puck magazine and the J. Ottmann Lithographing Company. It is designed in the Romanesque Revival style, with elements inspired by the German Rundbogenstil style. It was constructed in two parts: The north section was built in 1885–1986 and the south addition in 1892–1993. The front of the building on Lafayette Street was relocated in 1899 when the street (then called Elm Place) was widened. Herman Wagner was the architect for the renovated facade.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>The current Puck Building is composed of the original structure to the north, which dates from 1885, and the annex to the south, which dates from 1892. The buildings facade includes gilded statues of Shakespeares character Puck, from A Midsummer Night&#39;s Dream; the sculptor Henry Baerer created two such statues for the building.</p><br>
<p>Every elevation of the facade is divided vertically into bays of uniform width. The southern elevation on Jersey Street is clad in plain brick and has a small number of window openings with iron shutters. The bays are separated vertically by projecting brick piers, which rise atop granite pedestals. The rest of the facade is made of red brick, except for window frames and statues made of cast iron, as well as entrance gates made of wrought iron. Some terracotta and sandstone is also used in the facade. All four corners of the building are chamfered, with small diagonal cutouts. On Mulberry Street, there are two wrought-iron fire escapes, one each in the annex and the original building.</p><br>
<h4>Lower stories</h4><br>
<p>On the first two stories of the facade, there is one double-height arch in each bay. The piers between each bay are wider than on the upper stories, and there is a brownstone course at the bottom of each pier, just above the granite pedestal. On the first story, most of the bays contain rectangular openings, which are divided vertically into groups of three. Some of the first-story openings contain storefront entrances instead of windows; these entrances are accessed by small stoops, which are made of pieces of vaulted sidewalk. The second story is a semicircular lunette window, which is divided vertically into three panes. A cast-iron transom bar separates the first- and second-story windows. The lunettes are surrounded by round arches with slightly projecting edges, and there is a horizontal string course made of brownstone above the second story.</p><br>
<p>The Puck Building&#39;s main entrance is on Lafayette Street, within the fifth-northernmost bay. At the ground story of the archway are two rectangular doorways, which are separated by a cast-iron column and flanked by smaller cast-iron piers. In front of each doorway is an ornate Art Nouveau wrought-iron arch with a set of wrought-iron gates. A transom bar runs above the doorways, and a statue of Puck stands atop the center of the transom bar. Above the transom bar is a lunette window. On either side of the entrance is a granite pedestal, above which are two stone columns and two pilasters, all in the Doric order. The columns and pilasters are all topped by capitals with wreath motifs. Above the columns is an architrave bearing the words "Puck Building" in all-capital letters, with a console bracket below the center and a balustrade above it.</p><br>
<p>When the building was completed, Puck magazine described the structure as having round arches along both Houston and Mulberry streets, with a recessed wrought-iron entrance at the corner of these streets. The entrance at the northeast corner of the building, at Houston and Mulberry streets, included a pair of doorways until 1899.</p><br>
<h4>Upper stories</h4><br>
<p>On the third to seventh stories, the piers are narrower than on the lower stories. The third and fourth stories comprise a second tier of arcades. Within each bay, the third and fourth stories are composed of two double-height arches, each of which is half the width of the ground-level arches. The windows between the third and fourth stories are separated by patterned spandrel panels. Within each arched opening, there is a pair of sash windows on either story. Each pair of arches is separated vertically by a narrow brickwork pier with patterned capitals. In addition, there are corbels and brownstone sills running horizontally above the fourth story.</p><br>
<p>The fifth through seventh stories of each bay comprise a third arcade. On these stories, each bay has three triple-height arches, which are each one-third of the width of the ground-level arches. As with the third-and-fourth-story windows, each arch is divided by narrow brickwork piers with patterned capitals. At the sixth story of the building&#39;s northeast corner, the chamfer has a massive console bracket, which originally served as the base of a flagpole. A patterned brick course, corbels, a brownstone sill, and a cornice run horizontally above the seventh story of the original building.</p><br>
<p>The annex rises another two stories; the eighth and ninth stories of the annex form a separate arcade.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The ceilings on the first floor are 18 ft high, shrinking to 10.5 ft on the upper stories. The interiors architectural features included a cast-iron elevator. cast-iron staircases, wooden wainscoting, and open plan spaces with cast-iron columns. The columns were decorated with motifs such as rosettes, fluting, bosses, and bands. The brick vault were strong enough to accommodate the weight of the buildings printing presses.</p><br>
<p>The ground (first) floor was originally used by the J. Ottman firm, and it also included a stair leading to the Puck company offices on the upper stories. The building had 24 or 30 printing presses as well. After the original building was finished, King&#39;s Handbook of New York City characterized the building as being among the largest printing-plant structures in the world. A Puck magazine supplement described the structure as being the largest printing plant near the Astor Library.</p><br>
<p>Most of the interior, including the open plan offices, remained intact in the late 20th century. A lobby for commercial tenants was added during the 1980s renovation. On average, each of the modern-day building&#39;s floors covers about 22,000 ft2</p><br>
<h4>Penthouse apartments</h4><br>
<p>At the top of the building are six penthouse apartments collectively known as the Puck Penthouses; The apartments are accessed through their own entrance and are served by a concierge. The penthouse lobby has an imported European cast-iron fireplace mantel, and the private elevator has a depiction of Puck. Each of the apartments is assigned a Roman-numeral apartment number (for example, penthouse VI).</p><br>
<p>The Puck Penthouses retain the spaces&#39; original large windows, cast-iron columns, and vaulted brick ceilings. The apartments have custom stoves, window frames, door hinges, and other appliances, materials that were selected specifically to give the penthouses an industrial ambiance. The builders hardware is made of materials such as marble and nickel. There are also electronic devices, such as hidden televisions in the bathroom mirrors. One of the penthouses is within a dormer structure, which has a steel frame and is structurally connected with the frames of the original structure and annex.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Puck ownership</h3><br>
<h4>Development and opening</h4><br>
<p>In February 1885, Keppler, Schwarzmann, and J. Ottmann agreed to acquire the Institution of Mercy at the southwest corner of Mulberry Street and Houston Street. The sale was finalized the next month; the three men paid $140,000 for the site. The men hired Albert Wagner to design a seven-story building, with two basements, on a site measuring 117 ft along Houston Street and 138 ft along Mulberry Street. As planned, the ground floor would contain stores, the second and third stories would be used as offices, and the upper stories would be used as a printing plant. Demolition was underway by mid-1885. Keppler, Schwarzmann, and J. Ottmann borrowed $130,000 from the Franklin Savings Bank. The George A. Fuller Company was the main construction contractor.</p><br>
<p>The Puck Building was completed around 1886. At the time, it had 231,000 ft2 of space. Shortly after the building was finished, in June 1887, a fire caused up to $30,000 in damage to the upper floors. There was also water damage to Puck magazine&#39;s editorial rooms when firefighters tried to put out the blaze. The building caught fire again in early 1888, although the blaze was extinguished before a large amount of flammable material in the basement could catch fire. By the late 19th century, Puck employed 400 people at the building.</p><br>
<h4>Expansion</h4><br>
<p>B. B. Schneider sold Keppler and Schwarzmann the site on the northwest corner of Mulberry and Jersey streets in March 1892. This gave Puck executives full control of the western side of Mulberry Street between Houston and Jersey streets. The same month, Thomas Weatherby sold four houses on the north side of Jersey Street, immediately west of Schneiders plot, to Keppler and Schwarzmann. Wagner was rehired to design the annex, which was to rise nine stories. W. Arnott was hired as the stonemason for the annex, which was planned to cost $365,000 or $400,000. Work on the annex began sometime in 1892; during the annexs construction, some workers went on strike. In January 1893, the city government agreed to widen and extend Elm Street northward, which would require demolishing about one-third of the existing building; several property owners, including Keppler, expressed objections to the street&#39;s extension. The annex was ultimately completed in 1893. That year, Keppler, Schwarzmann, and Ottmann borrowed $300,000 for the building from the Brooklyn Savings Bank.</p><br>
<h4>Partial demolition and early 20th century</h4><br>
<p>Meanwhile, there were still plans to extend Elm Street north through Marion Street and Lafayette Place. In 1893, the citys Board of Street Opening and Improvement submitted plans for the project to the New York City Board of Aldermen for approval. Though the buildings owners were still opposed to the streets extension as late as December 1894, they had come to support the proposal by the next year. To make way for the section of Elm Street between Houston and Jersey streets, the city government decided to raze the buildings westernmost section in 1897. A city commission was appointed to determine how much each property owner should be compensated. They determined that the owners of the Puck Building would receive $464,000 in compensation.</p><br>
<p>In September 1897, the Puck Publishing Corporation filed plans for $275,000 worth of alterations to the Puck Building. Wagner was again hired as the architect for these modifications, and Hanlon Brothers were hired to demolish part of the building. Materials salvaged from the building were reportedly reused in a four-story building at 163 Crosby Street.</p><br>
<p>The modifications to the Puck Building were completed in 1899, Puck was discontinued in September of the following year.</p><br>
<h3>Mid-20th century</h3><br>
<p>After the discontinuation of Puck magazine, the building remained well-suited for firms in the printing industry, as its floor plates had been built to accommodate heavy printing presses. and the Paulus & Howell Press on the eighth floor. All of the rentable space had been rented by the end of 1917, when Acme Steel Goods Company took the seventh floor. Other tenants in the late 1910s included the American Paper Mills, clothing manufacturers Zeeman & Grossman, Raymond Engineering Corporation, and a store operated by Olney & Warrin.</p><br>
<p>A ladies hat manufacturers association moved into the building in the 1920s, and Comfort & Company, Inc., leased a large part of the building in 1935. The building&#39;s other tenants in the mid-20th century included the bookbinder J. C. Valentine Company (which moved out in 1931 after four decades there); the printing company Lehmaier Press; the Parker-Wilson Printing Company; the printing company Costa & Aliani; and the Pioneer Scientific Corporation. An office stationery company, S. Novick & Son, occupied the second floor; its salesmen included former USA Assistant Secretary of State Alger Hiss. In addition, in 1937, the Puck statue above the main entrance was cleaned.</p><br>
<p>In 1947, the Puck Building was sold to a client of David Rapaport; this was the first time the building had changed ownership in half a century. By then, the building was cited as having 210,000 ft2 of space, and it was valued at $490,000. Marlow Handbags moved its factory to the Puck Building in the next year. By the 1950s and 1960s, the building also housed such tenants as the Empire Bookbinding Company, Prospect Press, Sample Service Corporation, and the garment-industry-ticket producer Keller Ticket Company. After Coney Islands Steeplechase Park was closed in 1965, part of the amusement parks fence was moved to the Puck Building.</p><br>
<h3>Serra and Gee ownership</h3><br>
<p>Paul Serras family bought the Puck Building in 1978; at the time, the building was fully occupied. Serra and his partner Peter Gee, who ran a company called Peter, Paul and Puck, Additionally, Gee said "there are too many problems involved with the city and dealing with peoples personal lives" when it came to residential tenancies.</p><br>
<p>Serra and Gee converted the building to office and gallery space for graphic-arts firms. Workers regilded the Puck statues, renovated the elevator cabs, added interior wainscoting, and installed new wiring and HVAC systems; The Puck Building&#39;s renovation helped spur the revitalization of Lafayette Street, which had been a frequent hangout for drug dealers.</p><br>
<p>The Puck Building reopened in April 1983. which included artifacts from the building that were discovered during its renovation. prompting Serra and Gee to sell the Puck Building.</p><br>
<h3>Skydell and Kushner ownership</h3><br>
<h4>1980s to 2000s</h4><br>
<p>In 1986, a syndicate led by Harry Skydell paid $19 million for the building. Skydells partners in the syndicate included George Gellert, Charles Kushner, and Joel Seiden, Sonneblick-Goldman Corporation borrowed $26.3 million to pay for the buildings renovation and purchase.</p><br>
<p>After the second renovation, the Puck Building was nearly fully occupied. relocating several of its graphics and illustration departments there. the citys Civilian Complaint Review Board also had offices in the Puck Building, The New York Press magazine moved into the building as well. The Puck Buildings ballroom became a popular venue for fashion shows, in part due to the ballroom&#39;s relatively low rental rates and plain architectural design. Other events hosted in the building during the late 20th and early 21st centuries included the National Black Fine Art Show and the Outsider Art Fair.</p><br>
<p>Skydell owed $2.2 million on the Puck Building and another structure by the early 1990s. Because of the ownership syndicates financial troubles, Kushners firm, Kushner Companies, had to take over the Puck Building, becoming the sole owner of the structure. Additional tenants moved into the building during the decade. By 1998, Kushner Companies contemplated converting the ballroom spaces on the lower stories into retail space, as the Puck Building did not have any stores at the time. The city government rezoned the building&#39;s land lot the same year, changing it from a manufacturing zone to a mixed commercial and residential zone. The structure was valued at $80 million by 2000.</p><br>
<p>Pratt moved out of the Puck Building in 2001, and New York University leased 75,000 ft2 at the building two years later, becoming the structures largest tenant. NYU relocated its Wagner Graduate School of Public Service and sociology department into the building; at the time, the other tenants included Swanke Hayden Connell Architects and the catering firm New York Caterers. NYU hired Suben/Doughtery to install raised floors, consolidate some offices, and add a staircase to its space. The Puck Building was again renovated in the mid-2000s, when workers replaced the windows and added some lighting. The building was fully occupied at the time. In addition, the buildings owner sought to lease out the structure&#39;s 20,600 ft2 event space to a food emporium.</p><br>
<h4>New retail space and penthouses</h4><br>
<p>The outdoor-gear store REI leased 39,000 ft&sup2; in the building in 2010, with plans to open a three-story store there. Kushner Companies refinanced the building with a $80 million mortgage the same year. Part of the ground floor was cut away to make way for a staircase, and some of the original lower-story finishes were restored. The REI store opened in early December 2011, becoming the building&#39;s first retail tenant in over a century.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, the LPC issued a permit to Kushner Companies in May 2011, allowing the firm to begin renovating the facade. Kushner Companies chief executive Jared Kushner announced plans that August to add penthouse apartments atop the building and hired PKSB Architects to design the residences. Ultimately, Kushner Companies needed to meet with the LPC five or six times. In the final plan, the dormer was downsized by 1,500 ft2 and shortened by 20 ft. In addition, the buildings original parapet would be restored, preventing pedestrians from seeing the penthouse dormer from street level.</p><br>
<p>Jared Kushner was involved with the design of the buildings new apartments, to the extent that he mapped out their layouts and selected the materials with which they were decorated. His wife Ivanka Trump selected the materials for the apartments bathrooms and closets. Kushner began marketing the condos in September 2013, asking $21 million to $60 million. At the time, Kushner anticipated that the residences would attract "connoisseurs, collectors, and those with a youthful exuberance". Office and commercial tenants continued to occupy the intermediate stories. In the 2010s, these tenants included NYUs Wagner Graduate School; a Warby Parker showroom; the Kushner familys firm Thrive Capital, along with numerous startups funded by Thrive Capital; and several media- and internet-related firms.</p><br>
<h4>Mid-2010s to present</h4><br>
<p>Before sales had formally launched, penthouse IV was sold in December 2013 for about $28 million; the sale was finalized the following year. The first completed penthouse was placed for sale in January 2014, and the remaining penthouses were finished that March. and the fourth penthouse was placed for sale that March. Kushner Companies replaced the penthouses original brokerage, Sothebys International Realty, with the Corcoran Group the same year. With sales of the penthouse condos lagging, Kushner Companies decided to rent out three of the apartments in 2017. Kushner and Trump had originally wanted to move into one of the apartments, although they still had not done so by 2017.</p><br>
<p>Kushners brother Joshua and Joshuas wife Karlie Kloss bought one of the buildings penthouse in 2019 before reselling it; the couple purchased the last remaining penthouse two years later, At the time, the buildings other office tenants included Thrive Capital, Plaid Inc., and Cadre.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>The 1893 Kings Handbook of New York City described the Puck Building as "a fitting monument" to Puck magazine and the J. Ottmann Lithographing Company, particularly praising the facade as giving an impression of "strength combined with lightness and graceful simplicity". Paul Goldberger wrote for The New York Times in 1978 that the Puck Building was a "fine Romanesque commercial building" with "amusing" Puck statues, and another writer for the same newspaper said in 1983 that the building "seems to fit right in with the cast-iron structures" around it. Following the buildings 1983 renovation, a New York Daily News writer referred to the Puck statues as "the most outstanding feature of the building". In his 1994 book New York, a Guide to the Metropolis, Gerard Wolfe wrote that the Puck Building was "a fine example of the industrial Romanesque Revival style" of the late 19th century; similarly, Eric Nash wrote in his 1995 book New York&#39;s 50 Best Secret Architectural Treasures that the Puck Building was a "premier example of the Rundbogenstil".</p><br>
<p>Before the Puck Building was preserved as an official city landmark, it was depicted in the Municipal Art Societys 1982 exhibit "Landmarks That Arent". The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated it as a city landmark in April 1983, and the structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places the same year. After Wagner designed the Puck Building, he reused its design details for a structure at 140 Franklin Street in Tribeca.</p><br>
<p>The Puck Building has been shown in various works of popular culture, For example, an exterior shot of the Puck Building is seen in the American television sitcom Will & Grace, and it is also used as a setting in the 1989 film When Harry Met Sally.... The band The National recorded parts of their 2003 album Sad Songs for Dirty Lovers in an empty penthouse in the building; two of its members, Matt Berninger and Scott Devendorf, worked there at the time. The building is also depicted in a mural in the New York Public Library Main Branch&#39;s Periodical Room.</p><br>
<p>Saint Louis Cemetery  is the name of three Catholic cemeteries in New Orleans, Louisiana. Most of the graves are above-ground vaults constructed in the 18th and 19th centuries.</p><br>
<p>Cemeteries No. 1 and No. 2 are included on the National Register of Historic Places and the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail.</p><br>
<h2>Saint Louis No. 1</h2><br>
<p>St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 is the oldest and among the most prominent cemeteries in New Orleans. It was opened in 1789, replacing the city&#39;s older St. Peter Cemetery (Cimetière St. Peter; no longer in existence) as the main burial ground when the city was redesigned after a fire in 1788.</p><br>
<p>It is 8 blocks from the Mississippi River, on the north side of Basin Street, one block beyond the inland border of the French Quarter. It borders the former Iberville Projects. It has been in continuous use since its foundation. The nonprofit group Save Our Cemeteries and commercial businesses offer tours for a fee.</p><br>
<p>Notable New Orleanians buried in St. Louis No. 1 include Etienne de Boré, a wealthy pioneer of the sugar industry and the first mayor of New Orleans; Homer Plessy, the plaintiff from the landmark 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision on civil rights. Ernest N. "Dutch" Morial, the first African-American mayor of New Orleans was interred there in 1989. Subsequently, Morials family built a new family tomb at St. Louis Cemetery No. 3, and Morials body was reinterred there in late 2014. Notable creole author and educator Alexander Dimitry is buried at</p><br>
<p>Saint Louis Cemetery Number One. Most of the Dimitry family is interred there including; Andrea Dimitry and his wife Marianne Celeste Dragon. Marianne Céleste Dragon was the subject of a famous portrait painted by José Salazar.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery inspired an Alkemia Perfumes&#39; scent of the same name, which is described as "An atmospheric brooding of Spanish moss, crumbling stone, old cement, red clay brick, and graveyard dirt."</p><br>
<p>The renowned Voodoo priestess Marie Laveau is believed to be interred in the Glapion family crypt. Other notable New Orleanians here include Bernard de Marigny, the French-Creole aristocrat and politician who founded both the Faubourg Marigny and Mandeville, Louisiana; Barthelemy Lafon, the architect and surveyor who allegedly became one of Jean Lafitte&#39;s pirates; and Paul Morphy, one of the earliest world champions of chess. Delphine LaLaurie, the notoriously cruel slave owner, is also believed to lie in rest here. Architect and engineer Benjamin Latrobe was buried at St. Louis No. 1 after dying from yellow fever in 1820, while doing engineering for the New Orleans water works. In 2010, actor Nicolas Cage purchased a pyramid-shaped tomb to be his future final resting place.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery spans just one square block but is the resting place of many thousands. A Protestant section (generally not vaulted) lies in the northwest section.</p><br>
<p>Effective March 1, 2015, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans, which owns and manages this cemetery, has closed it to the general public, ostensibly because of the rise in vandalism there. However, in a controversial move, the diocese is now charging tour companies for access ($4,500 per year, or lesser amounts for short periods). Families who own tombs can apply for a pass to visit.</p><br>
<h2>Saint Louis No. 2</h2><br>
<p>St. Louis No. 2 is located some three blocks back from St. Louis No. 1, bordering Claiborne Avenue. It was consecrated in 1823. A number of notable jazz and rhythm & blues musicians are buried here, including Danny Barker and Ernie K-Doe. Also entombed here is Andre Cailloux (1825–1863), African-American Union hero and martyr of the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery received minor flooding during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, and its tombs seemed virtually untouched by the storm when the water went down, aside from the brownish waterline visible on all structures that were flooded.</p><br>
<p>There are many notable citizens of 19th and 20th century New Orleans laid to rest here. These include the Venerable Mother Henriette DeLille, who is a candidate for sainthood by the Catholic Church, Rodolphe Desdunes (1849–1928) and Jean Baptiste Dupeire (1795–1874) prominent citizen of New Orleans, among others.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<p>Other politicians and soldiers interred/entombed here:</p><br>
<p>Jacques Villeré (1761–1830) of St. Bernard Parish, La. Second Governor of Louisiana after statehood, commander of the 1st Division, La. State Militia, at the Battle of New Orleans.</p><br>
<p>Oscar Dunn (1826–1871) Emancipated from slavery as a child, he became the first elected black lieutenant governor of a USA state.</p><br>
<p>Pierre Soulé (1801–1870) of New Orleans, Orleans Parish, La. Born in France. Member of Louisiana state senate, 1845; USA Senator from Louisiana, 1847, 1849–53; USA Minister to Spain, 1853–55; officer in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. Died in New Orleans.</p><br>
<p>Charles Genois (c. 1793–1866) of New Orleans, Orleans Parish, La. Whig Mayor of New Orleans, La., 1838–1840.</p><br>
<p>Robert Brown Elliott (1842–1884), also known as R. B. Elliott, of South Carolina. Born in Massachusetts, 1842. Republican. Delegate to Republican National Convention from South Carolina, 1868 (alternate), 1880; member of South Carolina state legislature; USA Representative from South Carolina 3rd District, 1871–1875. Black.</p><br>
<p>Paul Capdevielle (1844–1922) of New Orleans, Orleans Parish, La. Born in New Orleans, Orleans Parish, La. Mayor of New Orleans, La., 1900–1904. Died in Bay St. Louis, Hancock County, Mississippi.</p><br>
<p>Carleton Hunt (1836–1921) of Louisiana. Born in New Orleans, Orleans Parish, La. Nephew of Theodore Gaillard Hunt. Democrat. Served in the Confederate Army during the Civil War; USA Representative from Louisiana 1st District, 1883–85.</p><br>
<p>Ignacy Szymański (1806–1874) was a Polish and American soldier. Born in New Orleans. He served in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. He was appointed to colonel of Chalmette Regiment, mainly made of Scandinavian immigrants from the Louisiana State Militia.</p><br>
<p>Dominique You (or Youx) (c. 1775–1830) was a former privateer and Battle of New Orleans veteran.</p><br>
<p>Pierre Nord Alexis (1820–1910) was the President of Haiti from December 1902 until December 1908. He seized power with the help of the United States, and declared himself "President for Life" at age 87 in January 1908, and was exiled in December of that year.</p><br>
<h2>Saint Louis No. 3</h2><br>
<p>St. Louis No. 3 is located approximately 2 mi away from the French Quarter, some 30 blocks from the Mississippi River, fronting Esplanade Avenue near Bayou St. John. (Coordinates: 29.98500&deg; latitude, -90.08670&deg; longitude.) It opened in 1854. The crypts on average are more elaborate than at the other St. Louis cemeteries, including a number of fine 19th century marble tombs. Those entombed include ragtime composer Paul Sarebresole, photographer E. J. Bellocq, and painter Ralston Crawford. Another to be entombed here is Sweet Emma Barrett, a self-taught jazz piano player and singer. New Orleans mayor Ernest N. "Dutch" Morial was reinterred at St. Louis Cemetery No. 3 in a new tomb for the Morial family.</p><br>
<p>St. Louis No. 3 also includes a Greek Orthodox section. The cemetery was heavily flooded during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, but its tombs escaped relatively unscathed. There was some plaster damage from debris.</p><br>
<p>The Winchester Mystery House is a mansion in San Jose, California, that was once the personal residence of Sarah Winchester, the widow of firearms magnate William Wirt Winchester. The house became a tourist attraction nine months after Winchester&#39;s death in 1922. The Victorian and Gothic-style mansion is renowned for its size and its architectural curiosities and for the numerous myths and legends surrounding the structure and its former owner.</p><br>
<h2>Sarah Winchester</h2><br>
<p>Sarah Winchester was born in 1839 in New Haven, Connecticut. She was called Sallie by people closest to her, after her paternal grandmother. She married William Wirt Winchester in 1862.</p><br>
<p>In 1866, Winchester gave birth to a girl named Annie Pardee Winchester. Diagnosed with marasmus, she did not thrive and lived only a month.</p><br>
<p>Between the fall of 1880 and the spring of 1881, Winchester&#39;s mother, father-in-law, and husband died. She was left with a large inheritance from her husband.</p><br>
<p>In 1884, her eldest sister, Mary Converse died. Around this time, she began developing rheumatoid arthritis and her doctor suggested that a warmer and drier climate might help improve her health. In 1885, at the age of 46, Winchester moved to California from New Haven, Connecticut. According to Mary Jo Ignoffo in her book Captive of the Labyrinth: Sarah L. Winchester, Heiress to the Rifle Fortune, her doctors recommendation, her happy memories of traveling to San Francisco with her husband in the 1870s, and advertising about the weather and health benefits of California were possible factors in Winchesters decision to move.</p><br>
<p>Winchester invited her three remaining sisters to follow her to California, which they did.</p><br>
<p>In 1886, Edward "Ned" Rambo, a San Francisco agent for the Winchester Repeating Arms Company, took Winchester on a tour of the Santa Clara valley to look for a home. He showed her a forty-five-acre ranch for sale that was located near San Jose. She purchased the property from John Hamm which included a two-story, eight-room farmhouse. Since the property reminded her of Llanada Alavesa from the Basque area, she named her new home Llanada Villa.</p><br>
<p>In 1890, Winchesters niece, Marion Merriman (called Daisy) aged around twenty-one, came to live with her. Merriman became Winchesters personal secretary, looking after business correspondence and banking. They attended charitable events together and were paying members of Associated Charities and the Red Cross. In 1903, Winchester paid for Daisy&#39;s wedding to Frederick Marriott III. That same year, Winchester purchased several homes and properties in Atherton. One of the homes was offered to Daisy and her new husband to live in, which they accepted. Winchester subsequently purchased a home for the couple closer to the train station for Fredrick to travel to work from. In 1904, Winchester purchased a large property near the hamlet of Burlingame, north of Coyote Point, then bought a houseboat, or ark as they were called at the time, instead of building a house.</p><br>
<p>Winchester died on September 7, 1922, at the age of 83.</p><br>
<h2>San Jose house renovation</h2><br>
<p>Winchester and her husband had developed an interest in architecture and interior design while building a home on Prospect Hill in New Haven. With plans to expand the farmhouse, Winchester hired at least two architects but dismissed them, deciding to do the planning herself. She designed the rooms one by one, supervised the project, and sought advice from the carpenters she hired. She took inspiration for the house from the world&#39;s fairs that were common then. While the home was similar in scope to other homes built then, it was unusual for a woman to look after such a project and, Colin Dickey states in his book Ghostland: an American History in Haunted Places, she could be considered an architectural pioneer of her time.</p><br>
<p>She was known to rebuild and abandon construction if the progress did not meet her expectations, which resulted in a maze-like design. In the San Jose News of 1897, it was reported that a seven-story tower was torn down and rebuilt sixteen times. As a result of her expansions, there are walled-off exterior windows and doors that were not removed as the house grew in size. Multiple levels, up to five, were added to different parts of the home. The design was essentially Victorian, with elements of Gothic and Romanesque features.</p><br>
<h3>Features of the house</h3><br>
<p>There was carved wood on the ballroom walls and ceilings. Woods such as teak, maple, and mahogany were used to make an intricate pattern on the ballroom floor. A large, brick fireplace was framed by two windows that included quotes from Shakespeare. The second floor had bedrooms that each had adjoining sitting rooms and sewing rooms. The wall coverings had a leather or metal appearance, known as Lincrusta wall coverings. The ceilings had mouldings, stencils, and faux finishes. There were chandeliers from Germany, art glass from Austria, furnishings from Asia, and paintings from France. An annunciator, an early form of intercom, which was a common feature of large homes during this time period, was installed for calling servants. There existed an indoor garden with slanted floors that would carry excess water to trap doors which had pipes that would supply water to the outdoor flowers. A generator was installed for a water pump and electricity. Because of Winchester&#39;s height of four feet ten inches and health issues, a stairway was built that has 44 steps but rises only ten feet.</p><br>
<p>The windows are unusual since they are pastel-colored, asymmetrical in their design, and have sharp bevels. The windows on the upper levels had a spider-web tracery, a popular design then. The windows to the right and left of the brick fireplace feature Shakespearean quotations from Richard II and Troilus and Cressida. It has been claimed by tour guides and articles over the years that the windows were made by Tiffany & Co despite the fact that the company rarely used beveled glass. This style of window is also found at Craigdarroch Castle in British Columbia, Canada, prompting architectural historian Jim Wolf to believe that the windows were made by the same company. Wolf determined that glass artist John Mallon from Alexander Dunsmuirs company, the Pacific American Decorative Company, was the most likely artisan of the windows. This theory was confirmed when an envelope postmarked July 1894, which had the seal of Dunsmuirs company on it and a scribbled note that appears to be in Winchester&#39;s hand, was discovered in the wall of one of the dining rooms that was being restored. Many of the art glass windows that were purchased were never installed and have been housed in a storage room.</p><br>
<p>Winchester would take breaks from construction on a regular basis to rest, sometimes for months, since she tired easily. It slowed construction considerably and is counter to the claims made in articles and by tour guides that she had the house under construction around the clock for thirty-eight years, until her death in 1922.</p><br>
<p>At its largest, the house had approximately 500 rooms.</p><br>
<p>As claimed by Bruce Spoon, a student from San Jose State College who decided to write his master&#39;s thesis about Winchester in 1951, the reasons for building her large home were to keep workers employed and to express her artistic vision. He reached this conclusion after interviewing people who remembered her and after reviewing newspaper and magazine articles.</p><br>
<h3>1906 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>When the 1906 San Francisco earthquake hit, the Llanada Villa was severely damaged. Though there are rumors that Winchester was trapped in the San Jose home, there is no evidence that she was there. She owned several homes in California, and after the earthquake spent most of her time at her home in Atherton.</p><br>
<p>The seven-story tower and most of the chimneys collapsed. One entire wing was destroyed along with the third and fourth story additions. Winchester had the rubble removed but had little more done to the property after the earthquake. It left doors that opened to nothing where balconies had once been, pipes that were protruding from what were once window boxes, and staircases that once led to upper floors ending suddenly.</p><br>
<p>After 1910, due to failing health, Winchester did not work on the San Jose home except for odd maintenance jobs and adding an elevator in 1916. At this time, she dedicated her time to finances and building an investment portfolio. Mary Jo Ignoffo claims that, "She was far more successful constructing an investment portfolio than a mansion."</p><br>
<p>When Winchester died in 1922 the house had 160 rooms, 2,000 doors, 10,000 windows, 47 stairways, 47 fireplaces, 13 bathrooms, and 6 kitchens.</p><br>
<h2>As a tourist attraction</h2><br>
<p>The house became a tourist attraction nine months after Winchesters death in 1922. The house was in disrepair and considered to be of no monetary value. A group of investors purchased the property subsequently leasing the house to John and Mayme Brown who turned it into an attraction. They later purchased the house in 1931. There were many room additions and deletions made to the home after Winchesters death.</p><br>
<p>The first tour guide of the house was Mayme Brown. Past neighbors, friends, and workers for Winchester were distressed when they read about superstitious claims being made about the house and Winchester, and were upset the Browns were making money from falsehoods. They described Winchester as clearheaded and savvier with finances and business than most men.</p><br>
<p>In 1924 Harry Houdini briefly visited the house and was reportedly impressed by its unusual layout and architectural novelties, but could not make a detailed investigation because of more pressing engagements. According to some accounts, Houdini suggested tour operators employ "Winchester mystery house" as a promotional name for the property.</p><br>
<p>When Keith Kittle, a past Disneyland and Frontier Village employee, became the general manager in 1973, the house was in poor shape. He had the house renovated in the 1970s and 1980s and added a Winchester rifle museum. He sought historical landmark status and began an advertising campaign that included large billboards along the highways. The billboards feature a silhouetted house with implications that a ghost encounter was possible. Attendance increased as he played off the history and superstition that was already circulating. Kittle was general manager until 1996.</p><br>
<p>As of September 2022, the house is owned and operated by Winchester Mystery House, LLC, which is a private company that represents the descendants of the Browns. Captive of the Labyrinth author Mary Jo Ignoffo wrote that tour guides are required to follow a script emphasizing fabrications and inaccuracies. According to Ignoffo, one guide lamented, "I feel so torn because I have to tell people untruths! Every time I go through the house and have to talk about 13s and other kooky things, my heart breaks a little for Sarah....I have to bite my tongue every time I hear a guest say, what a nutcase."</p><br>
<h2>Legends and lore</h2><br>
<p>Winchester&#39;s story has been embellished over the years by various rumors, hyperbole, and myths, and popular writers have misrepresented or invented details about the house and its owner in order to enhance the legend.</p><br>
<h3>Inheritance</h3><br>
<p>Claims of Winchester inheriting as much as $20 million and earning $1,000 per day in royalties from her inheritance can be found in tourist literature purchased at the Winchester Mystery House. Ignoffo states that her husbands estate in 1881 was valued at $362,330 (equal to $ today), but this amount included approximately $300,000 of stock that Winchester would only inherit when her mother-in-law died, which did not happen until 1898. With the addition of her husbands Winchester Repeating Arms Company shares, she owned a total of 777 shares valuing $77,700, which paid average dividends of $7,770 annually between 1880 and 1885.</p><br>
<h3>Moving to California</h3><br>
<p>Myths around her decision to move from the east coast to California are thought to have originated from author Susy Smith in her book Prominent American Ghosts, published in 1967. In Smith&#39;s version of events, Winchester visited a medium in Boston named Adam Coons who told her that she and her family were being haunted by the ghosts of people killed by Winchester rifles, that she must construct a house for these ghosts, and that she must never complete the project. This assertion of Winchester meeting with a medium has been repeated in brochures and articles ever since. According to Ignoffo, while it is plausible that Winchester did meet with a psychic medium since it was a common practice for women of her status at the time, there is no evidence that she did so.</p><br>
<p>Emily Mace, a scholar, and others have looked through issues of Banner of Light, which was a spiritualist periodical, and in the Boston city directories, which listed spiritualists in the area, and no one named Adam Coons could be found.</p><br>
<h3>Neverending construction</h3><br>
<p>Beginning around 1895, Winchester started appearing in newspapers. The articles in these local papers were filled with speculation about Winchester and the ongoing construction of her San Jose home. Her lack of interaction with neighbors and the known fact that her money came from the firearms industry fed into a superstitious narrative, despite large, ornate homes being commonly built by the wealthy. The newspapers declared that the reason that the construction was ongoing was that Winchester feared she would have bad luck if the construction would stop. This theory eventually grew into stories that she believed she would die if construction stopped.</p><br>
<p>In the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), when it added the Winchester home to the National Register of Historic Places in 1981, they incorrectly stated that the construction lasted 38 years, and reiterated that Winchester believed she must continue building or she would die. HABS also incorrectly listed the purchase date as 1884 when county records state the purchase was not until 1886.</p><br>
<p>There were some articles published against the superstitious slant. In one, an unidentified acquaintance refuted these superstitious accusations, stating that they were nonsense and that Winchester was an unusually sensible woman.</p><br>
<p>While Winchester lived at the Atherton house, her relatives stayed at the San Jose home for almost a year in 1915 to attend the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, which ran for nine months. No construction happened during this time and the staff closed up the house for a week to attend the fair.</p><br>
<p>Ignoffo states that there is no evidence that Winchester was compelled to keep her construction project running and preferred to focus on estate planning.</p><br>
<h3>Labyrinth construction</h3><br>
<p>The belief that Winchester built her house in its strange, maze-like manner to confuse and keep spirits from harming her and that her sanity was questionable started in the mid-1890s and has grown in scale since her death. The doors and windows that open to nothing, the unusually shallow stairs, the stairs that end in a ceiling, interior barred windows and trap doors in the floor are used to confirm Winchesters spirituality and poor state of mind. According to paranormal investigators Nickell and Ignoffo these house oddities have simple explanations. The barred windows were previously exterior windows blocked off as the house additions grew. The doors and windows that opened to nothing resulted from the 1906 earthquake and the severe damage that happened to the house. The small steps were built because of Winchesters declining health. The trap doors were constructed in a greenhouse room where excess water could run and be piped to an outdoor garden. After the damage from the earthquake, Winchester did not rebuild the house.</p><br>
<h3>Bell tower</h3><br>
<p>The tower bell was used to call workmen and to serve as a fire alarm on the property. According to Joe Nickell, fanciful claims later arose that it was used to "summon spirits".</p><br>
<h3>Ghostly music</h3><br>
<p>According to Joe Nickell, claims that local residents heard "ghostly music" coming from the house are explained by the fact that Winchester often played the pump organ in the Grand Ballroom when she was unable to sleep.</p><br>
<h3>Parties for spirits</h3><br>
<p>According to Joe Nickell, claims that Winchester held parties for the spirits in her home that featured lavish dishes served on gold plates kept in a safe are fanciful and unsubstantiated. Nickell wrote that after her death when the safe was opened, no gold plates were found, only personal mementos and a lock of her baby&#39;s hair.</p><br>
<h3>Gun guilt</h3><br>
<p>At the turn of the twentieth century, the most common belief, that still persists, regarding Winchester&#39;s house building was that she felt tremendous guilt resulting from all the deaths caused by Winchester rifles and from inheriting so much money from the arms company. Ignoffo claims that it is unlikely Winchester had any guilt, since in the 1800s the Winchester Repeating Arms Company was seen as a success, and weapons were viewed as a necessity for survival.</p><br>
<h3>Health and superstition</h3><br>
<p>Ignoffo and paranormal investigator Joe Nickell report that as Winchester aged, particularly after 1900 as her health issues grew worse, which included arthritis, missing teeth and neuritis, she became more private and reclusive. This reluctance to appear in public or to socialize with her peers gave her a mysterious reputation feeding the gossip in the community and local newspapers which fuelled the rumor that she was superstitious. Winchesters companion of many years, Miss Henrietta Severs states Winchester had no superstitious beliefs. Winchesters relatives, employees and gardeners never made claims that she was superstitious, guilt-ridden or crazed.</p><br>
<p>All her employees were named as beneficiaries in her will.</p><br>
<h3>Presidents</h3><br>
<p>Winchester twice declined to host a USA president. First, in 1901, President William McKinley visited, and a committee to arrange accommodations was formed, but Winchester did not extend an invitation. The president and his official coaches drove past the mansion without stopping. Second, in 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt visited the area and the legend states that Winchester would not open a locked gate to let the president in; it was not true as the president had no interest in meeting Winchester as stopping at the home could have been used to promote rifle sales. He did not want to be seen endorsing any product. Despite there being plausible reasons for her not hosting the presidents, these instances furthered rumors that she was not of sound mind and was a crank.</p><br>
<h3>The number thirteen</h3><br>
<p>According to lore, architectural features such as thirteen bedrooms, thirteen bathrooms, and thirteen windows in certain rooms are due to Winchesters apparent fascination with the number thirteen. However, according to carpenter James Perkins, these items and “the more irregular features, which have made the house a world-famed oddity were built after Mrs. Winchesters death.” The first time that this apparent superstition appeared was in an article printed in 1929. Subsequently, it has been mentioned in most articles about Winchester and her house.</p><br>
<h3>Nightly séances</h3><br>
<p>Winchesters staff, who spent every day with her, stated she had no interest in séances and there is no record of them being held in the house. Nevertheless, a false urban legend has arisen claiming she held nightly séances in the blue room or in a closet by herself from midnight until two in the morning, talking to ghosts about what construction should be accomplished the following day. In addition to the lack of records found about seances at Llanada Villa, the closet séances were unlikely given that they were usually social events and not done by individuals and records show that the blue room was the gardeners bedroom.</p><br>
<h3>Hauntings</h3><br>
<p>Visitors and tour guides claim to have experienced cold spots, footsteps, cooking smells, odd sounds, whispering, doors and windows slamming, and feelings of being watched. Investigator Joe Nickell explains that they could be the result of confirmation bias and suggestibility due to publicity and rumors that the house is the most haunted house in the United States or even the world; or that over a thousand ghosts reside in the home. Nickell reports one example where a shadowy figure thought to be a ghost turned out to be a staff member at the house. According to Nickell, there is no evidence that the house is haunted, and that alleged whispering sounds can be imagined or due to wind. Additionally, it is common for large, rambling, and drafty old houses to have temperature variations, and the house&#39;s settling and exterior temperature changes can explain odd noises.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In 1960, the Winchester Mystery House was used as the Cyrus Zorba House in the film 13 Ghosts.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, the house was featured on the cover for the single "Psychotic Reaction" by the garage rock band Count Five.</p><br>
<p>The tale of the Winchester Mystery House was inspiration for The Haunted Mansion ride at Disney theme parks, the first of which opened in 1969 at Disneyland.</p><br>
<p>The house is the primary setting for Michaela Roessner&#39;s 1993 science fiction novel Vanishing Point in which it becomes the home of a squatter community following the disappearance of most of the human race.</p><br>
<p>The house is the setting of a subplot in the 1997 Tim Powers fantasy novel Earthquake Weather.</p><br>
<p>The plot of the 2002 miniseries Rose Red (written by Stephen King) was inspired by the lore surrounding Sarah Winchester and the Winchester Mystery House.</p><br>
<p>The Haunting of Winchester is a ghost story musical by composer Craig Bohmler and writer Mary Bracken Phillips that takes place in the house. It was commissioned by the San Jose Repertory Theatre for its 25th anniversary season and premiered in September–October 2005.</p><br>
<p>The British paranormal TV investigation show Most Haunted Live! conducted a seven-hour live TV investigation of the house in an episode that aired live in the USA only on October 19, 2007.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, Ghost Adventures featured the Winchester Mystery House in the fourth episode of season five.</p><br>
<p>In the MythBusters episode "Smell of Fear", the build team visited the Winchester Mystery House to look around and later watch "one of the scariest movies of all time" on a television that they set up in the grand ballroom, with the purpose of determining if fear does smell different by gathering their sweat samples for testing at the end of the night. While the team watched the movie in the dark, the show&#39;s crew randomly made loud noises to increase the frightening experience.</p><br>
<p>Sarah Winchester, Phantom Opera is a 24-minute film by French filmmaker Bertrand Bernello that had its North American premiere at the 54th New York Film Festival in October 2016.</p><br>
<p>The house was featured in seasons 1 and 4 of BuzzFeed Unsolved Supernatural in episodes where Ryan Bergara and Shane Madej stayed there overnight.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, the house was featured on an episode of Ghost Brothers.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, Emily Schulz told the story of the house to Christine Schiefer on the first episode of our And That&#39;s Why We Drink.</p><br>
<p>Features of the house are referenced in I the Mighty&#39;s song "111 Winchester".</p><br>
<p>In 2017, filming took place on the property for the film Winchester, featuring Helen Mirren as Sarah Winchester. The film was released on February 23, 2018. In trailers and on posters, the film is noted to be based on a true story despite evidence that much of the stories in the movie are disputed in Mary Jo Ignoffo&#39;s book Captive of the Labyrinth.</p><br>
<p>In 2018, the house was described in "Locked Away", an episode of the podcast Lore.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, the podcast Criminal produced an episode about the house titled "The Widow and the Winchester".</p><br>
<p>House of Penance, a Dark Horse comic by Peter Tomasi, Ian Bertram and Dave Stewart, is "...perhaps the first biographical horror graphic novel" that illustrates the house as haunted and Sarah as obsessed.</p><br>
<p>Mrs Winchester&#39;s Gun Club is a 2019 adult fiction novel by Douglas Bruton concerning Sarah Winchester that tells a group of stories voiced by the victims of Winchester guns.</p><br>
<p>In January 2021, an episode of the award-winning podcast This Paranormal Life was released that discussed the Winchester Mystery House. The hosts deemed all claims of haunting to be false.</p><br>
<p>In June 2024, content creation group OfflineTV featured the Winchester Mystery House in a video on their YouTube channel, where they played hide and seek and explored the history and myths surrounding the property.</p><br>
<p>The Chautauqua Institution is a 501 nonprofit education center and summer resort for adults and youth located on 2,070 acres in Chautauqua, New York, 17 mile northwest of Jamestown in the western southern tier of New York state. Established in 1874, the institution was the home of, and provided the impetus for, the Chautauqua movement that became popular in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Chautauqua Institution Historic District is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and was further designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Chautauqua was founded in 1874 by inventor Lewis Miller and Methodist Bishop John Heyl Vincent as a teaching camp for Sunday-school teachers. The teachers would arrive by steamboat on Chautauqua Lake, disembark at Palestine Park and begin a course of Bible study that used the Park to teach the geography of the Holy Land.</p><br>
<p>The institution has operated each summer since then, gradually expanding its season length and program offerings in the arts, education, religion, and music. It offers educational activities to the public during the season, with public events including popular entertainment, theater, symphony, ballet, opera, and visual arts exhibitions. The institution also offers a variety of recreational activities, plus a community education program called Special Studies along with residential programs of intensive study provided for students aiming for professional careers who audition for admittance into Chautauqua&#39;s Schools of Performing and Visual Arts.</p><br>
<p>The physical setting of the institution defined its development as an assembly. The grounds are on the west shoreline of upper Chautauqua Lake. The early tent-camp assembly gave way to cottages and rooming houses, and then hotels, inns and eventually condominiums.</p><br>
<p>Founder Lewis Miller&#39;s daughter, Mina Miller Edison (wife of inventor Thomas Edison) offered literary classes in Fort Myers, Florida, through the Valinda Society. After completing courses, students were given Chautauqua diplomas.</p><br>
<p>In 1973, the National Park Service added the Institution to the National Register of Historic Places. In 1989, the Department of the Interior designated it a National Historic Landmark District consisting of most of the Institution property between NY 394, formerly NY 17J, the lake and (roughly) Lowell and North Avenues.</p><br>
<h2>Institution programs</h2><br>
<p>Every summer during its nine-week season, Chautauqua Institution provides an array of programs including fine and performing arts, lectures, worship services, and religious programs, as well as recreational activities. Nearly 100,000 visitors come to Chautauqua to participate in these programs and events annually. Summer admission to Chautauqua is by "gate ticket," which allows entrance into the grounds, use of Smith Memorial Library, use of public beaches and parks, and attendance at lectures and concerts. There is an additional charge for some courses, for films shown at the Chautauqua Cinema, for opera and theater tickets, and use of the tennis courts and golf courses. Cottages and rooms are available for long or short term rental.</p><br>
<h3>Weekly programs</h3><br>
<p>Programs offered during the week at Chautauqua include devotional services and a lecture on a social, political, or academic issue in the morning, a religious or political topic in the afternoon, and a night of entertainment as the evening program. This evening Amphitheater event may be a symphony concert by the Chautauqua Symphony Orchestra, a dance program by the Chautauqua Ballet Company, or a show by an individual guest artist. During most weeks, there is at least one opportunity to catch an opera and a play put on by Chautauqua&#39;s resident summer companies. Operas are performed in English at Norton Hall, a 1930s-era, art-deco structure. There are also regularly scheduled organ recitals on the Massey Memorial Organ, student recitals, masterclasses, forums, and seminars for the sophisticated.</p><br>
<p>A broad range of special courses in music, art, dance, drama, and general topics are available. The Chautauqua Schools of Music offers extremely competitive programs with scholarships. George Gershwin visited Chautauqua as a summer refuge to compose parts of his Concerto in F in a small, wooden piano studio.</p><br>
<p>Sundays at Chautauqua feature worship services, both denominational and ecumenical. There is an afternoon Amphitheater program, such as a military band or student dance program. On Sundays, entrance to the Institution grounds is free.</p><br>
<h3>Special events</h3><br>
<p>There is an annual program held on the first Tuesday of each August called "Old First Night." The event is the "birthday party" for the institution, marking the anniversary of the opening of the first season in 1874. Several of the Chautauqua facilities will host fundraisers, including the Old First Night Run, a fun run around the grounds, hosted by the Chautauqua Sports Club, a lip-sync contest called Air Band hosted by the Chautauqua Boys and Girls Club, and a bake sale hosted by the Chautauqua Children&#39;s Club. All money raised goes to the Chautauqua Fund.</p><br>
<p>Another Chautauqua favorite is the Fourth of July show at the Amphitheater specializing in patriotic-themed music followed by area fireworks viewed from the Chautauqua Lake. Occasional town barbecues at the town square (called Bestor Plaza) and weekly sailboat races are part of the overall unique Chautauqua experience.</p><br>
<h3>Children&#39;s programs</h3><br>
<p>The Children&#39;s School, established in 1921, is a developmental preschool for youth ages 3–5 and was a pioneering program in the field of nursery-school education. The program consists of social, recreational, and educational activities that often incorporate other Chautauqua programs in the areas of music, drama, art, and recreation.</p><br>
<p>The Chautauqua Boys and Girls Club is one of the oldest day camps in the United States, founded in 1893. While parents are engaging in various activities around the grounds, their children meet in a special area by the lake and participate in sports, art, and recreational games, such as volleyball, sailing, swimming, field games, and pottery.</p><br>
<h3>Institution facilities</h3><br>
<p>The institution&#39;s grounds, located between New York State Route 394 and Chautauqua Lake, include public buildings, administrative offices, a library, movie theater, bookstore, hotel, condominiums, inns, rooming houses, and many private cottages available for rent during the season. There are about 400 year-round residents, but the population can increase up to 7,500 guests per day during the summer season. The Institution is mostly a pedestrian community with bikes and scooters widely used along with a 12-mph speed limit for cars when authorized to be on the grounds. There are several parking lots located on the periphery that visitors utilize and then walk or bike into the institution:</p><br>
<p>The 4,000-seat Amphitheater was demolished in September 2016 to make way for a new theater-style structure, paying homage to the old structure. The new 4,500-seat Amphitheater, completed during the 2016–17 off-season, in time for the institution&#39;s 2017 season, features modern amenities and facilities and improved accessibility. This project caused some controversy due to historic nature of the old facility.</p><br>
<p>The Athenaeum Hotel located on the grounds is the only hotel owned and operated by the institution. The 156-room hotel, said to be the largest wooden building in the eastern United States, was built in the Second Empire style in 1881. It has a two-story porch supported by narrow columns, with a central, mansard-covered tower. Although the number of hotel rooms has steadily declined on the grounds in the past thirty years, there has been a corresponding growth in condominiums.</p><br>
<p>Palestine Park is a walk-around, landscaped, geographically scaled map of Palestine showing the general contour of the area, including mountains, valleys, bodies of water and the cities in their correct geographical locations, that existed in the first century CE. Throughout the week, there are multiple tours to discuss the historical and religious significance of this world-famous area.</p><br>
<p>The Elizabeth S. Lenna Hall is 8,000 square foot recital and rehearsal hall, dedicated in 1993. This facility was the first significant program facility to be built at the Chautauqua Institution in 65 years. The building serves as the rehearsal facility for the Chautauqua Symphony Orchestra and Music School Festival Orchestra and as a recital hall for chamber music, voice and piano.</p><br>
<p>The Lewis Miller Cottage, the residence of Chautauqua co-founder Lewis Miller, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965. Erected at Chautauqua in 1875, the cottage was considered one of the earliest prefabricated structures in the United States. Mina Miller Edison, Miller&#39;s daughter, spent summers there with her husband, inventor Thomas Alva Edison.</p><br>
<h3>The Chautauqua Prize</h3><br>
<p>The Chautauqua Prize is an annual American literary award established by the Chautauqua Institution in 2012. The winner receives and all travel and expenses for a one-week summer residency at Chautauqua. It is a "national prize that celebrates a book of fiction or literary/narrative nonfiction that provides a richly rewarding reading experience and honors the author for a significant contribution to the literary arts."</p><br>
<h3>Chautauqua Declaration</h3><br>
<p>The Chautauqua Declaration is an annual declaration made at the Chautauqua Institution supporting international efforts to bring human rights violators to justice. The first declaration occurred following a meeting of current and former international chief prosecutors of international criminal tribunals and special courts in 2007. The declaration marked the 100th anniversary of the Hague Convention of 1907 and included prosecutors from the Nuremberg trials through to the International Criminal Court. In August 2017, the Tenth Chautauqua Declaration was made, signed by prosecutors from the International Criminal Court, International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Special Court for Sierra Leone and the Khmer Rouge Tribunal.</p><br>
<h2>The Chautauqua movement</h2><br>
<p>In the late 19th century, following the model of the Chautauqua Institution, the Chautauqua movement spread throughout the United States and was highly popular until the start of World War II. By the mid-1920s, when circuit Chautauquas were at their peak, they appeared in over 10,000 communities to audiences of more than 45 million. The movement combined several concepts prevalent in the post-civil war US, including:</p><br>
<p>The Lyceum movement which attempted to raise the level of public education with lectures, readings, and entertainment with goals of lifelong learning and self-improvement.</p><br>
<p>Camp meetings and revivals which used outdoor gatherings</p><br>
<p>Sunday School for the purpose of religious education.</p><br>
<p>The ideals of the Chautauqua Institution spread throughout the United States through many Independent Chautauqua assemblies. Popping up were a series of traveling Chautauqua meetings, which incorporated many of the program&#39;s components, including lectures, music, nondenominational religious studies, and a focus on current issues. Several Independent Chautauquas have survived into the 21st century.</p><br>
<p>The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle (CLSC), founded in 1878 by Vincent, is one of America&#39;s oldest continuously operating book clubs. It was founded to promote self-learning and study, particularly among those unable to attend institutions of higher learning. Six to nine books are added to the reading list each year, with authors generally coming to Chautauqua to discuss their writing and to talk with readers.</p><br>
<h2>Famous visitors</h2><br>
<p>The Chautauqua Institution has been visited by political figures, celebrities, artists, musicians, scientists, and writers.</p><br>
<p>Since its founding in 1874, the Institution has been visited by four sitting United States presidents including Ulysses S. Grant (1875), Theodore Roosevelt (1905), Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1936), and Bill Clinton (1996). It was at the Chautauqua Institution Amphitheater that Franklin Delano Roosevelt addressed a crowd of more than 12,000 with his historic “I hate war” speech in 1936. Future President James A. Garfield visited in 1880 and future President William McKinley visited Chautauqua Institution when he was the governor of Ohio in 1895.</p><br>
<p>United States Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jackson was a lifelong attendee and lecturer at Chautauqua. John Q. Barrett wrote, "For almost fifty years, Chautauqua was a major part of Jackson’s expanding horizons, intellectual development, study and leisure—it was one of the places he loved best, and it deserves much credit for making him what he became (as he does for advancing it)." Supreme Court Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Anthony Kennedy, and Sandra Day O&#39;Connor lectured at Chautauqua during their tenure on the bench. Future Supreme Court Justice Stanley Forman Reed spoke at Chautauqua in July 1937 while serving as the United States Solicitor General. Future Justice Thurgood Marshall lectured at Chautauqua in August 1957 while serving as a director and chief counsel of the NAACP.</p><br>
<p>The Institution has been visited by other historically notable figures including William James, Booker T. Washington, Susan B. Anthony, Amelia Earhart, and Eric Foner. Celebrities from the performing arts who performed at Chautauqua include John Philip Sousa, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald, Lucille Ball, and Johnny Mathis; and contemporary artists such as Rhiannon Giddens, Leann Rimes, Jimmie Johnson, Toby Keith, Harry Connick Jr., Ben Folds, and Clay Aiken.</p><br>
<p>In August 2022 author Salman Rushdie was stabbed multiple times at Chautauqua when he was about to give a public lecture.</p><br>
<h2>Security at the Chautauqua Institution</h2><br>
<p>Questions were raised about Chautauqua Institution after the stabbing of Salman Rushdie, although a state trooper and a sheriffs officer were present at the event. Michael Hill, president of the Chautauqua Institution, stated that the Institution had ensured that law enforcement officers were present for the event. He described the assault on Rushdie as "unlike anything in nearly 150-year history".</p><br>
<p>It was alleged that the leadership of the Chautauqua Institution disregarded recommendations for security precautions because they felt it would alienate the audience from the speakers. Following the attack, the Chautauqua Institution announced it would require guests to furnish photo IDs to get a Sunday gate pass, which previously could be secured anonymously on Sundays, when there is no fee for entry. Carried bags larger than a wristlet will also be banned in the amphitheater.</p><br>
<p>The Cranbrook Educational Community is an education, research, and public museum complex in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. This National Historic Landmark was founded in the early 20th century by newspaper mogul George Gough Booth. It consists of Cranbrook Schools, Cranbrook Academy of Art, Cranbrook Art Museum, Cranbrook Institute of Science, and Cranbrook House and Gardens. The founders also built Christ Church Cranbrook as a focal point in order to serve the educational complex. However, the church is a separate entity under the Episcopal Diocese of Michigan. The sprawling 319 acre campus began as a 174 acre farm, purchased in 1904. The organization takes its name from Cranbrook, England, the birthplace of the founder&#39;s father.</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook is renowned for its architecture in the Arts and Crafts and Art Deco styles. The chief architect was Eliel Saarinen while Albert Kahn was responsible for the Booth mansion. Sculptors Carl Milles and Marshall Fredericks also spent many years in residence at Cranbrook.</p><br>
<h2>Schools at Cranbrook</h2><br>
<p>Cranbrook Schools comprise a co-educational day and boarding college preparatory "upper" school, a middle school, and Brookside Lower School.</p><br>
<p>In 1922, the Bloomfield Hills School was the first school to open on the Cranbrook grounds. Founded by George Booth, the Bloomfield Hills School was intended as the community school for local area children. The Bloomfield Hills School ultimately evolved into Brookside School. Following completion of the Bloomfield Hills School, Booth looked forward to building Cranbrook School for Boys, an all-boys College-Preparatory school at which students from the Detroit area and abroad would come to reside. Booth wanted the Cranbrook School to possess an architecture reminiscent of the finest British boarding schools; he hired Finnish architect Eliel Saarinen to design the campus. Cranbrook&#39;s initial phase of building was completed in 1928.</p><br>
<p>Over the years, the Cranbrook School for Boys campus grew to include Stevens Hall, Page Hall, and Coulter Hall. While primarily functioning as only residential spaces, Page Hall featured a smoking lounge as well as a shooting range. Lerchen Gymnasium, Keppel Gymnasium, and Thompson Oval were also constructed on the campus. In the 1960s, Cranbrook School for Boys also constructed a state-of-the-art Science Building named the Gordon Science Center.</p><br>
<p>Realizing that young women would also need a place of their own to learn, Ellen Scripps Booth, Booth&#39;s wife, pressured Booth into building a school for girls. Scripps Booth supervised the project, which she named the Kingswood School Cranbrook. Unlike her husband, Scripps Booth encouraged Eliel Saarinen to come up with a unique interior design for the campus completely on his own. Instead of the several buildings that housed the Cranbrook School for Boys, the Kingswood School Cranbrook was contained within one building that included all necessary features, including dormitories, a dining hall, an auditorium, classrooms, a bowling alley, a ballroom, and lounges and common areas. The education at Kingswood School Cranbrook was initially viewed as a "finishing school", though that changed over time.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, the Cranbrook School for Boys and Kingswood School Cranbrook entered a joint agreement, renaming the new institution the Cranbrook Kingswood Upper School.</p><br>
<h2>Cranbrook Academy of Art</h2><br>
<p>The Cranbrook Academy of Art, a graduate school for architecture, art, and design, was founded by George Booth and Ellen Scripps Booth in 1932. In 1984, The New York Times wrote that "the effect of Cranbrook and its graduates and faculty on the physical environment of this country has been profound... Cranbrook, surely more than any other institution, has a right to think of itself as synonymous with contemporary American design."</p><br>
<p>The buildings were designed and the school first headed by Eliel Saarinen, who integrated design practices and theories from the Arts and Crafts movement through the international style. The school continues to be known for its apprenticeship method of teaching, in which a small group of students—usually only 10 to 16 per class, or 150 students in total for the ten departments—study under a single artist-in-residence for the duration of their curriculum. There are no traditional courses; all learning is self-directed under the guidance and supervision of the respective artist-in-residence.</p><br>
<h3>Academics</h3><br>
<p>The school currently confers two degrees: Master of Fine Arts and Master of Architecture. The Master of Architecture degree is a post-professional degree and is not accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board. Cranbrook Art Academy currently has 11 departments — 2D Design, 3D Design, 4D Design, Architecture, Ceramics, Fiber, Metalsmithing, Painting, Photography, Print Media and Sculpture. The latest department (4D Design) began taking students in the fall of 2019, under the leadership of Carla Diana, a Cranbrook Art Academy alumna. In 2022, Paul Sacaridiz was appointed the Director of the Cranbrook Academy of Art.</p><br>
<h2>Cranbrook Art Museum</h2><br>
<p>The Cranbrook Art Museum is a museum of contemporary art with a permanent collection, including works by Charles and Ray Eames, Harry Bertoia, Maija Grotell, Carl Milles, Robert Motherwell, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein. Completed in 1942 under the direction of architect Eliel Saarinen, the museum is housed in the same building as the Cranbrook Academy of Art.</p><br>
<p>The museum also offers tours of Saarinen House, which has undergone painstaking restoration beginning in 1977. The remaining areas of the house were completed between 1988 and 1994. The museum is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums.</p><br>
<p>Sculptor Carl Milles&#39; numerous works in Metro Detroit include those at Cranbrook Educational Community, such as Mermaids & Tritons Fountain (1930), Sven Hedin on a Camel (1932), Jonah and the Whale Fountain (1932), Orpheus Fountain (1936), and Spirit of Transportation (1952), currently in Cobo Center.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, the museum closed for renovation and expansion, reopening in November 2011. The project restored aspects of the original building designed by Saarinen, made necessary structural repairs, replaced windows, and upgraded mechanical systems. The renovated museum features year-round, changing exhibitions and a new Collections and Education Wing—an additional 20,000 ft&sup2; of storage and classroom space open to visitors by guided tour. Based on an open storage plan, the new wing allows the museum&#39;s entire collection to be seen.</p><br>
<h2>Cranbrook Institute of Science</h2><br>
<p>The Cranbrook Institute of Science includes a permanent collection of scientific artifacts, as well as displays of annual temporary exhibits. It also features a planetarium and a powerful telescope through which visitors may peer on selected nights.</p><br>
<p>The museum grounds feature a life-sized statue of a Stegosaurus.</p><br>
<p>From 1946 to 1970, the institute awarded the Mary Soper Pope Medal for notable achievement in plant sciences.</p><br>
<h2>Cranbrook House and Gardens</h2><br>
<p>Cranbrook House and Gardens are the centerpiece of the Cranbrook Educational Community campus. The 1908 English Arts and Crafts-style house was designed by Albert Kahn for Cranbrook founders George Booth and Ellen Scripps Booth. Ten first-floor rooms can be seen on guided tours; the rooms contain tapestries, hand-carved woodworking, and English antiques in the Arts and Crafts style. The upper floors are used for the executive offices of the Cranbrook Educational Community.</p><br>
<p>Originally designed by George Booth, the 40 acre gardens include a sunken garden, formal gardens, a bog garden, a herb garden, a wildflower garden, a Japanese garden, sculpture, fountains, specimen trees, and a lake.</p><br>
<p>Leonard Bernstein recalled composing portions of his Symphony No. 2, The Age of Anxiety, on the Cranbrook House Steinway concert grand piano while residing there in April 1946. Bernstein had come to Detroit at the request of Zoltan Sepeshy to conduct the Detroit Symphony Orchestra at Music Hall. While visiting, he requested studio space where he could compose, and Sepeshy had the piano moved from Cranbrook House into St. Dunstan&#39;s Playhouse.</p><br>
<p>The house and gardens are open to the public from May through October.</p><br>
<h2>St. Dunstan&#39;s Playhouse</h2><br>
<p>St. Dunstans Playhouse, while not formally a part of the Cranbrook Educational Community, is located on the Cranbrook grounds near the Cranbrook House. The Playhouse, a 206-seat theater, houses the St. Dunstans Theatre Guild of Cranbrook. The guild was founded in 1932 by Henry Scripps Booth, the son of Cranbrook&#39;s founders George and Ellen Booth.</p><br>
<p>In the summer months, the St. Dunstan&#39;s Theatre Guild performs in the outdoor Greek Theatre adjacent to the Cranbrook House. The theater was restored in 1990–1991.</p><br>
<h2>Historic landmark</h2><br>
<p>Fourteen buildings making up the Cranbrook complex were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973</p><br>
<p>The contributing buildings are:</p><br>
<p>Brookside School Cranbrook</p><br>
<p>Buildings & Grounds Offices</p><br>
<p>Christ Church, Cranbrook</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook Academy of Art</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook Foundation Office</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook House & Gardens</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook Institute of Science</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook School</p><br>
<p>Cranbrook School Auditorium</p><br>
<p>Edison House</p><br>
<p>Faculty Housing</p><br>
<p>Greek Theater at St. Dunstan&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Kingswood School Cranbrook</p><br>
<p>Visitors Entrance</p><br>
<p>New York City Hall is the seat of New York City government, located at the center of City Hall Park in the Civic Center area of Lower Manhattan, between Broadway, Park Row, and Chambers Street. Constructed from 1803 to 1812, the building is the oldest city hall in the United States that still houses its original governmental functions. The building houses the office of the Mayor of New York City and the chambers of the New York City Council. While the Mayor&#39;s Office is in the building, the staff of thirteen municipal agencies under mayoral control are located in the nearby Manhattan Municipal Building, one of the largest government buildings in the world, with many others housed in various buildings in the immediate vicinity.</p><br>
<p>New York City Hall is a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated both City Hall&#39;s exterior and interior as official city landmarks in 1966 and 1976, respectively.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>17th century</h3><br>
<p>New Amsterdam&#39;s first City Hall was built by the Dutch Republic in the 17th century near present-day 73 Pearl Street. The first structure was demolished in 1690.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>The city&#39;s second City Hall, built in 1700, stood on Wall and Nassau Streets. That building was renamed Federal Hall in 1789, after New York became the first official capital of the United States after the Constitution was ratified. It was demolished in 1812 and current Federal Hall was built in 1842.</p><br>
<p>Plans for building a new City Hall were discussed by the New York City Council as early as 1776, but the financial strains of the war delayed progress. The Council chose a site at the old Common at the northern limits of the city, now City Hall Park. City Hall was originally an area for the first almshouse in 1653. In 1736, there was a financed almshouse for those who were fit to work, for the unfit, and those that were like criminals but were paupers.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1802, New York City held a competition for a new City Hall. The first prize of $350 was awarded to Joseph-François Mangin and John McComb Jr. Mangin studied architecture in his native France before becoming a New York City surveyor in 1795 and publishing an official map of the city in 1803 that was largely discredited for its inaccuracies. Mangin later served as the architect of the landmarked St. Patrick&#39;s Old Cathedral on Mulberry Street. McComb, whose father had worked on the old City Hall, was a New Yorker and designed Castle Clinton in Battery Park, among other buildings and structures. Mangin had no known involvement with City Hall after winning the commission. McComb alone supervised every aspect of construction and was in charge of the architectural modifications and detailing during the extended building process.</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone of the new City Hall was laid on May 26, 1803. Construction was delayed after the City Council objected that the design was too extravagant. In response, McComb reduced the size of the building and used brownstone at the rear of the building to lower costs. The brownstone, along with the original deteriorated Massachusetts marble facade, quarried from Alford, Massachusetts, was later replaced with Alabama limestone between 1954 and 1956. Labor disputes and an outbreak of yellow fever further slowed construction. The building was not dedicated until 1811, and opened officially in 1812.</p><br>
<p>The New York City Police riot occurred in front of New York City Hall between the recently dissolved New York Municipal Police and the newly formed Metropolitan Police on June 16, 1857. Municipal police fought with Metropolitan officers who were attempting to arrest New York City Mayor Fernando Wood.</p><br>
<h3>20th and 21st centuries</h3><br>
<p>In 1953, the citys public works commissioner Frederick H. Zurmuhlen requested $2.2 million to repair City Halls facade, which was crumbling.</p><br>
<p>On July 23, 2003, at 2:08 p.m., City Hall was the scene of a rare political assassination. Othniel Askew, a political rival of City Councilman James E. Davis, opened fire with a pistol from the balcony of the City Council chamber. Askew shot Davis twice, fatally wounding him. A police officer on the floor of the chamber then fatally shot Askew. Askew and Davis had entered the building together without passing through a metal detector, a courtesy extended to elected officials and their guests. As a result of the security breach, then-Mayor Michael Bloomberg revised security policy to require that everyone entering the building pass through metal detectors without exception.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, work began on a restoration of the building, after a century without a major renovation. The construction included structural enhancements, upgrades to building services, as well as in-depth restoration of much of the interior and exterior. Due to the complexity of the demands of the project, the New York City Department of Design and Construction hired Hill International to provide construction management. Renovations were originally estimated to cost $104 million and take four years, but ended up costing nearly $150 million and taking over five years.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Although Mangin and McComb designed the building, which was constructed between 1810 and 1812, it has been altered numerous times over the years by several architects. These include Leopold Eidlitz in 1860, John H. Duncan in 1898, William Martin Aiken in 1903, Grosvenor Atterbury from 1907 to 1917, Shreve, Lamb & Harmon in 1956, and Cabrera Barricklo in 1998.</p><br>
<p>The architectural style of City Hall combines international architectural influences, French Renaissance and English neoclassicism. American-Georgian is more evident in the interior design. The design of City Hall influenced at least two later civic structures, the Tweed Courthouse and the Surrogate&#39;s Courthouse immediately to the north. City Hall is a New York City designated landmark. It is also listed on the New York State and National Registers of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<p>The building consists of a central pavilion with two projecting wings. The entrance, reached by a long flight of steps, has figured prominently in civic events for over a century and a half. There is a columned entrance portico capped by a balustrade, and another balustrade at the roof. The domed tower in the center was rebuilt in 1917 after the last of two major fires. The original Massachusetts marble facade, quarried from Alford, Massachusetts, and complemented with brownstone on the rear elevation, had deteriorated over time from pollution and pigeons. It was completely reclad in Alabama limestone above a Missouri granite base in 1954–56 by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, architects of the Empire State Building.</p><br>
<p>The steps of City Hall frequently provide a backdrop for political demonstrations and press conferences concerning city politics. Live, unedited coverage of events at City Hall is carried on NYC Media channel 74, a City Government-access television (GATV) official cable TV channel.</p><br>
<p>Fencing surrounds the building&#39;s perimeter, with a strong security presence by the New York City Police Department and other security. Public access to the building is restricted to tours and to those with specific business appointments.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>On the inside, the rotunda is a soaring space with a grand marble stairway rising up to the second floor, where ten fluted Corinthian columns support the coffered dome, which was added in a 1912 restoration by Grosvenor Atterbury. The rotunda has been the site of municipal as well as national events. Abraham Lincoln&#39;s coffin was placed on the staircase landing across the rotunda when he lay in state in 1865 after his assassination. Ulysses S. Grant also lay in state beneath the soaring rotunda dome – as did Colonel Elmer Ephraim Ellsworth, first Union officer killed in the Civil War and commander of the 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment (First Fire Zouaves).</p><br>
<p>There are 108 paintings from the late 18th century through the 20th century, which The New York Times declared were "almost unrivaled as an ensemble, with several masterpieces". Among the collection is John Trumbull&#39;s 1805 portrait of Alexander Hamilton, the source of the face on the United States ten-dollar bill. There were significant efforts to restore the paintings in the 1920s and 1940s. In 2006, a new restoration campaign began for 47 paintings identified by the Art Commission as highest in priority.</p><br>
<p>Official receptions are held in the Governors Room, which has hosted many dignitaries including the Marquis de Lafayette and Albert Einstein. The buildings Governors Room hosted President-elect Abraham Lincoln in 1861. The Governors Room, which is used for official receptions, also houses one of the most important collections of 19th-century American portraiture and notable artifacts such as George Washington&#39;s desk.</p><br>
<p>Other notable rooms include:</p><br>
<p>The Outer Room is adjacent to the traditional Mayor&#39;s office, which is a small space on the northwest corner of the first floor</p><br>
<p>The Ceremonial Room is where the mayor would meet officials and hold small group meetings</p><br>
<p>The Blue Room is where New York City mayors have been giving official press conferences for decades and is often used for bill-signing ceremonies</p><br>
<p>Room 9 is the press room at City Hall where reporters file stories in cramped quarters</p><br>
<h2>Surroundings</h2><br>
<h3>Neighborhood</h3><br>
<p>The area around City Hall is commonly referred to as the Civic Center. Most of the neighborhood consists of government offices (city, state, and federal), as well as an increasing number of upscale residential dwellings being converted from older commercial structures. Architectural landmarks surround City Hall, including St. Pauls Chapel, St. Peters Church, the Home Life Building, the Rogers Peet Building, and the Woolworth Building to the west; the Broadway–Chambers Building to the northwest; 280 Broadway, 49 Chambers, Tweed Courthouse, and Surrogates Courthouse to the north; the Manhattan Municipal Building to the northeast; the Brooklyn Bridge to the east; and the New York Times Building, the Potter Building, and the Park Row Building to the southwest. City Hall Park is approximately three blocks away from the World Trade Center to the west. Pace Universitys New York City campus is located across Park Row from City Hall.</p><br>
<h3>Subway stations</h3><br>
<p>Located directly under City Hall Park is the former City Hall subway station, the original southern terminal of the first service of the New York City Subway built by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT). Opened on October 27, 1904, this station beneath the public area in front of City Hall was designed to be the showpiece of the new subway. The platform and mezzanine feature Guastavino tile, skylights, colored glass tile work and brass chandeliers. Passenger service was discontinued on December 31, 1945, although the station is still used as a turning loop for trains.</p><br>
<p>Another station named City Hall also exists on the BMT Broadway Line, albeit on the western side of City Hall and not directly under it. This station was built in 1918 for the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT).</p><br>
<p>Other nearby, open subway stations are Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall/Chambers Street and Chambers Street–World Trade Center/Park Place/Cortlandt Street.</p><br>
<h2>As a geographic center</h2><br>
<p>Google Maps uses New York City Hall as the zero-mile point from which distances from New York City are measured.</p><br>
<p>The bicycle business of the Wright brothers, the Wright Cycle Company  successively occupied six different locations in Dayton, Ohio. Orville and Wilbur Wright began their bicycle repair, rental and sales business in 1892, while continuing to operate a print shop . These shops helped them fund their aeronautical studies.</p><br>
<p>In 1896, they began manufacturing and selling bicycles of their own design, the Van Cleve, named after an early settler of Dayton, and the St. Clair, named after a territorial governor. They invented the self-oiling hub and devised the innovation of machining the crankarm and pedal on the left side with left-hand threads to prevent the pedal from coming unscrewed while cycling. The brick building at 22 South Williams St., where the Wrights worked from 1895 to 1897, is the only extant building on its original foundation and in its original location that housed a Wright bicycle shop. They ran their printing shop on the second-floor. The 22 South Williams Street building is part of Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park and the National Aviation Heritage Area.</p><br>
<p>The Wrights used the profits from the Wright Cycle Company to finance their aviation experiments. In 1901, they fitted a third bicycle wheel horizontally above the front wheel of one of their St. Clair bicycles and used the apparatus as a test platform to study airfoil design. They built a six-foot wind tunnel on the second floor of their bicycle shop at 1127 West Third St., the last location of their bicycle business, and from October to December they conducted pioneering tests in the tunnel of over 200 shapes of scale-model wings.</p><br>
<p>In that same building, they designed and constructed their gliders and first airplane, the Wright Flyer, which cost under $1,000 to build. The shop closed in 1909 and they started their aviation company. In 1937, with Orville&#39;s cooperation, the building at 1127 West Third St. was moved to Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan, by Henry Ford.</p><br>
<h2>Shop locations</h2><br>
<p>With the exception of the West Second Street location, which is located near the Schuster Center on the other side of the Miami River, all of the shops are located within about one block of each other.</p><br>
<p>1892—Wright Cycle Exchange at 1005 West Third Street</p><br>
<p>1893—Wright Cycle Exchange at 1015 West Third Street</p><br>
<p>1893 to 1894—Wright Cycle Exchange at 1034 West Third Street. The name later changed to Wright Cycle Co.</p><br>
<p>1895 to 1897—Wright Cycle Co. at two locations—the main store at 22 South Williams Street, and a branch store in downtown Dayton at 23 West Second Street. The branch closed in 1896.</p><br>
<p>1897 to 1909—The Wright Cycle Co. at 1127 West Third Street.</p><br>
<h2>Wright Cycle Exchange (1892–1893)</h2><br>
<p>After both brothers purchased bicycles in the spring of 1892, their aptitude with bicycle repairs and the high demand for repairmen led them to starting their own repair shop. In December 1892, they rented a storefront at 1005 West Third Street, where they officially started the Wright Cycle Exchange. They sold bicycles from $40 to $100. In addition to these sales, they rented bicycles, and sold parts and accessories. The brothers then moved the shop to 1015 West Third street, where they even had a newspaper ad for the Exchange. By the end of 1893, the shop was moved to 1034 West Third Street, where the name was changed from Wright Cycle Exchange to Wright Cycle Company.</p><br>
<h2>Wright Cycle Company (1894–1909)</h2><br>
<p>In 1895 the Wright Brothers moved to 22 South Williams Street, the only location of the six that is still standing today. It has been turned into the Wright Cycle Company Complex and the National Aviation Heritage Area. A second branch opened at 20 West Second Street in 1895, but closed down the next year. In 1896 the Wright Brothers began selling their own bikes. They sold the more expensive Van Cleve, and the cheaper St. Clair. Orville made his own additions to the bicycles, including the Oil-Retaining Wheel Hub and the Coaster-Brakes. This was the greatest era of success for the Wright Brothers. They operated at 22 South Williams Street from 1895 to 1897.</p><br>
<p>In 1897 the Wright Brothers moved their shop to 1127 West Third Street, the sixth and final location for the Wright Cycle Company. In 1900 they produced their, a catalog which promoted their famous Van Cleve, which now came in two models. After becoming increasingly invested in the Wright Glider, the Brothers manufactured very few bicycles after 1902, and completely stopped after 1904. In 1909, the shop at 1127 West Third Street was converted completely for airplanes, and the Wright Brothers sold the company to W.F. Meyers, who continued to sell Van Cleves until 1939. This marks the end of the Wright Cycle Company.</p><br>
<p>The Cemetery of the Evergreens, also called The Evergreens Cemetery, is a non-denominational rural cemetery along the Cemetery Belt in Brooklyn and Queens, New York City. It was incorporated in 1849, not long after the passage of New York&#39;s Rural Cemetery Act spurred development of cemeteries outside Manhattan. For a time, it was the busiest cemetery in New York City; in 1929 there were 4,673 interments. Today, the Evergreens is the final resting place of more than 526,000 people.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery borders Brooklyn and Queens and covers 225 acre of rolling hills and gently sloping meadows. It features several thousand trees and flowering shrubs in a park-like setting. Cypress Hills Cemetery lies to its northeast.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Evergreens was built on the principle of the rural cemetery. Two of the era&#39;s most noted landscape architects, Andrew Jackson Downing and Alexander Jackson Davis, were instrumental in the layout of the cemetery grounds.</p><br>
<p>The Evergreens has a monument to six victims of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of March 25, 1911 who were unidentified for nearly a century. In 2011, Michael Hirsch, a historian, completed four years of research that identified these victims by name (see ).</p><br>
<p>There are also seventeen British Commonwealth service personnel buried in the cemetery: thirteen from World War I and four from World War II.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 15, 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h3>Individual graves</h3><br>
<p>John Bunny (1863–1915), actor</p><br>
<p>George C. Bennett (1824–1885), newspaper publisher and New York State assemblyman</p><br>
<p>Albert Levi Burt (1843–1913), eponymous founder of the publisher A. L. Burt</p><br>
<p>Anthony Comstock (1844–1915), censor (see Comstock Law)</p><br>
<p>William C. Cooper (1853–1918), silent-film actor</p><br>
<p>Bill Dahlen (1870–1950), Major League Baseball player, one of the outstanding early 20th century players. Lies in an unmarked grave</p><br>
<p>James E. Davis (1962–2003), New York City councilman (he was originally interred in Green-Wood Cemetery, but after it was realized that his assassin was also interred there, he was moved to the Cemetery of the Evergreens)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Dilward (1817–1887), Minstrel performer credited with having invented the word "hunky-dory"</p><br>
<p>George Henry Ellis (1875–1898), A chief yeoman on the USS Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>Alice Fleming (1882–1952), actress, stage and screen</p><br>
<p>Effie Germon (1845–1914), Stage actress descended from the Germons of Baltimore, an old theatrical family</p><br>
<p>John D. Germon (1840–1901), Stage actor descended from the Germons of Baltimore, an old theatrical family; brother of Effie Germon</p><br>
<p>Adelaide Hall (1901–1993), singer, actress, dancer, nightclub chanteuse</p><br>
<p>George Hall (1849–1923), Major League Baseball player, banned from baseball for life</p><br>
<p>Yusef Hawkins (1973–1989), murder victim</p><br>
<p>Martin Johnson Heade (1819–1904), artist</p><br>
<p>Lucille Hegamin (1894–1970), singer, female pioneer of the Blues</p><br>
<p>William Hickey (1927–1997), actor</p><br>
<p>Martin Hildebrandt (1825–1890), early tattoo artist</p><br>
<p>Fanny Janauschek (1829–1904), Czech-born stage actress</p><br>
<p>Ernest A. Janson (1878–1930) highly decorated United States Marine, earned two Medals of Honor for his heroic actions in World War I</p><br>
<p>Joseph Forsyth Johnson (1840–1906), landscape architect and great-grandfather of Bruce Forsyth</p><br>
<p>George H. Lindsay (1837–1916), congressman</p><br>
<p>George W. Lindsay (1865–1938), congressman, his son</p><br>
<p>Winsor McCay (1872–1934), cartoonist and animated cartoon pioneer</p><br>
<p>Antonio "Tony" Pastor (1837–1908), vaudevillian</p><br>
<p>Charles A. Read (1837–1865), American Civil War Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>Julia Smitten Reinhardt (1844–1924), stage actress and suffragist</p><br>
<p>Sante Righini (1883–1912), died on the Titanic</p><br>
<p>Bill "Bojangles" Robinson (1878–1949), tap dancer</p><br>
<p>Stephen A. Rudd (1874–1936), congressman</p><br>
<p>Assotto Saint (1947–1994), poet, publisher and performance artist</p><br>
<p>Joseph Thuma Schenck (c. 1891–1930), vaudevillian, better known as "Joe" Schenck, of the comedy singing team Van and Schenck</p><br>
<p>Gardiner Spring (1785–1873), American minister and author</p><br>
<p>William Steinitz (1836–1900), world chess champion</p><br>
<p>Bob Thiele (1922–1996), record producer</p><br>
<p>Amy Vanderbilt (1908–1974), journalist, etiquette authority</p><br>
<p>Oscar Walker (1854–1889), Major League Baseball player</p><br>
<p>John William Warde (c. 1912–1938), his widely publicized suicide inspired the movie Fourteen Hours.</p><br>
<p>Horace Weston (1825–1890), banjo player</p><br>
<p>Thomas "Blind Tom" Wiggins (1849–1908), musician</p><br>
<p>Lester Young (1909–1959), jazz musician</p><br>
<h3>Group monument</h3><br>
<p>Triangle Shirtwaist fire – the bodies of six victims of the 1911 fire to be identified were buried under a monument of a kneeling woman. They could not be identified after the inferno because they were burned beyond recognition, and had been buried without names. A century after the tragedy, in 2011, they were identified by historian Michael Hirsch as Maria Giuseppa Lauletti, Max Florin, Concetta Prestifilippo, Josephine Cammarata, Dora Evans, and Fannie Rosen.</p><br>
<p>Dwight Presbyterian Mission was one of the first American missions to the Native Americans. It was established near present-day Russellville, Arkansas in 1820 to serve the Arkansas Cherokees. After the Cherokee were required to move to Indian Territory in 1828, the mission was reestablished in 1829 near present-day Marble City, Oklahoma. The mission is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A mission was requested by Tahlonteeskee, the Principal Chief of the Western Cherokees, after he had visited Brainerd Mission in 1818. The mission was founded in August 1820 on Illinois Bayou near present-day Russellville, Arkansas by Cephas Washburn. It was named for Rev. Timothy Dwight, president of Yale College and a corporate member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. After Tahlonteeskee&#39;s death in the spring of 1819, the mission was supported by his brother John Jolly.</p><br>
<p>By 1824, Dwight Mission was a self-contained small town on the frontier. There were at least 24 buildings, including residences for missionaries, students, staff, and visitors; support buildings that included a combination library, post office and pharmacy; a dining hall with kitchen; a storehouse; a blacksmith shop; lathe and carpenter shop; a stable and a barn.</p><br>
<p>A new treaty between the Cherokees and the United States in 1828 required the Arkansas Cherokees to move to Indian Territory. Therefore, the mission was reestablished in its present-day location, in May 1829, on Sallisaw Creek, near the city of Marble City, Oklahoma. The school opened May 1, 1830. Initially, the facility had a double log house (a building combining school and living quarters) and several log houses to house the staff. Eventually, there would be twenty-one houses, a dining hall, a barn and a number of outbuildings. The mission had more than a dozen staff members and eighty students at the peak of its activity. Its primary mission was to provide an education to Cherokee children and expose them to the Christian religion.</p><br>
<p>Samuel Worcester served at the mission in 1835, after having worked with the Cherokee as a missionary in Georgia before removal. He created the type for the Cherokee syllabary for their first newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix. In 1837, the first Cherokee language printing press in the then Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) was moved from Union Mission to Dwight Mission. In 1839, the majority of the Cherokee nation was removed to the area from the Southeast on the Trail of Tears.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, many of the mission&#39;s buildings were burned down in warfare between pro-Confederate and pro-Union forces. The last religious service was in November 1862. Then it was abandoned. Afterwards, the property was taken over by private owners. By 1884, only two of the original buildings remained.</p><br>
<p>The Cherokee National Council decided to reopen the school in 1886. The Presbyterian Women&#39;s Board of Home Missions supplied funds to do this, and a large building was constructed to serve as a boarding school for Cherokee girls. After 1895, it became a day school, then resumed the boarding school concept in 1900, this time for boys and girls.</p><br>
<p>On January 12, 1918, a fire burned the Dwight Mission School dormitory, destroying the dormitory and killing thirteen students. The students were named as: George Wickett (Cherokee), Nighthawk Mclemore (Cherokee), Phillip Correll (Cherokee), Rufus Young (Cherokee), J. P. Chandler, Jr (Cherokee), Kenneth Crutchfield (Cherokee), Delbert Barnes (Cherokee), Wilson Beaver (Creek), George Tiger (Creek), Robert Daniels (Creek), Solomon Bruner (Creek), Newton Goins (Choctaw), and Gilbert Grants (Omaha). The boys, who were aged 9 to 17, were trapped on a screened porch. Their bodies were returned to their hometowns, and a memorial for them was erected in the Dwight Mission Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>By 1944, the facility was called Dwight Indian Training School. It was then operated by Board of National Missions of the Presbyterian Church USA, and served seventy-one students, mostly Cherokee and Choctaw.</p><br>
<p>The school was closed in 1948.</p><br>
<p>In the fall of 1950, a number of Presbyterian laymen felt that the Synod of Oklahoma should acquire the property and preserve it because of its long association with the Presbyterian Church. They formed Dwight Mission, Inc. and purchased the property on May 6, 1951, for $35,000. Dwight Mission, Inc. and the Synod of Oklahoma managed the daily programs for the next 30 years.</p><br>
<p>Dwight Mission today operates as a Presbyterian camp, retreat, and conference center between Marble City and Sallisaw, Oklahoma. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Historical markers identify and explain the original location in Arkansas.</p><br>
<p>In June 2021, Dwight Mission was acquired by the Cherokee Nation.</p><br>
<p>The Hermitage is a historical museum located in Davidson County, Tennessee, United States, 10 mi east of downtown Nashville in the neighborhood of Hermitage. The 1,000 acre+ site was owned by President Andrew Jackson, the seventh president of the United States, from 1804 until his death at the Hermitage in 1845. It also serves as his final resting place. Jackson lived at the property intermittently until he retired from public life in 1837.</p><br>
<p>The Hermitage enslaved men, women, and children, numbering nine at the plantations purchase in 1804 and 110 at Jacksons death, worked at the Hermitage and were principally involved in growing cotton, its major cash crop. It is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion and grounds</h2><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>The Hermitage is built in a secluded meadow that was chosen as a house site by Rachel Jackson, wife of Andrew Jackson. From 1804 to 1821, Jackson and his wife lived in a log cabin. Together, the complex formed the First Hermitage, with the structures known as the West, East, and Southeast cabins.</p><br>
<p>Jackson commissioned construction of a more refined house, and the original mansion was a two-story, Federal-style building built with bricks manufactured onsite by skilled people. Construction took place between 1819 and 1821. The house had four rooms on the ground floor and four rooms on the second level, each with a fireplace and chimney. The large central hallways opened in warm weather from front to back to form a breezeway. A simple portico was added later. In 1831, while Jackson was residing in the White House, he had the mansion remodeled under the direction of architect David Morrison. The new structure included flanking one-story wings, a one-story entrance portico with 10 columns, and a small rear portico that gave the house a Classical appearance.</p><br>
<p>In 1834, a chimney fire seriously damaged the house, with the exception of the dining room wing. This led to Jackson having the current 13-room, Greek Revival structure built on the same foundation as the former house. It was completed two years later. The architects for the house were Joseph Reiff and William C. Hume, who also built Tulip Grove across the road.</p><br>
<p>The mansion has a rectangular layout, about 104 ft from east to west and 54 ft from north to south. The south front is the location of the main entrance and includes a central block with a five-bay, two-story structure with a portico supported by six modified Corinthian style, wooden columns with a simple entablature resting on the capitals. Within the portico is a second-story balcony with simple square balusters. One-story wings with single fenestrations flank the mansion and extend beyond it to the front of the portico, enclosing it on three sides. While the southern façade gives the appearance of a flat roof, the three other elevations show that the tin-covered roof is pitched. The front façade was painted a light tan, and a sand coating was added to the columns and trim to simulate the appearance of stone. A near replica of the front portico is found on the north end of the house, although it features Doric-style columns and is capped with a pediment.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The layout of the main block of the house consists of four large rooms separated by a center hall. The entry hall with plank flooring painted dark is decorated with block-printed wallpaper by Joseph Dufour et Cie of Paris, depicting scenes from Telemachus&#39; visit to the island of Calypso. At the far end of the hall is the elliptical cantilevered staircase with mahogany handrail that leads to the second level. To the left of the hall are the front and back parlors, featuring crystal chandeliers and Italian marble mantels. Leading from the front parlor is the dining room in the east wing.</p><br>
<p>Decorated with a high-gloss paint to reflect as much light as possible, the fireplace features a rustic mantelpiece called the "Eighth of January". It was carved by a veteran of the Battle of New Orleans, who worked on the mantelpiece on each anniversary of the battle until he finished on January 8, 1839. Jackson installed the piece on the next anniversary a year later on January 8, 1840. Adjacent to the dining room is a pantry and storage room that leads to an open passageway to the kitchen. This was built separate from the house to reduce the risk of fire to the main house as well as eliminate the noise, heat, and odors of cooking. To the right of the entrance hall, accessible via a side hall, are two bedrooms that were occupied by President Jackson and his son, Andrew Jackson, Jr. A spacious library and office used by Jackson and others to manage the site are located in the west wing.</p><br>
<p>On the second level are four bedrooms used by family members and guests, including Sam Houston, and Presidents James K. Polk and Martin Van Buren.</p><br>
<h3>Grounds</h3><br>
<p>The site today covers 1,120 acre, which includes the original 1,050 acre tract of Jacksons land. It is overseen and managed by The Andrew Jackson Foundation, formerly called the Ladies Hermitage Association. The mansion is approached by a cedar-lined, 10 ft wide, guitar-shaped carriage drive designed by Ralph E. W. Earl. The design made it easier to maneuver carriages in the narrow space. To the east of the house was a 1 acre formal garden designed by Philadelphia-based gardener William Frost in 1819. Laid out in the English four-square kitchen garden style, it consists of four quadrants and a circular center bedroom contained by unusually long, beveled bricks and pebbled pathways. Originally, the garden was primarily used to produce food for the mansion and, secondarily, as an ornamental pleasure garden. It is surrounded by a white picket fence. On the north perimeter stands a brick privy that served as a status symbol as well as a garden feature.</p><br>
<p>After Rachel Jackson died in 1828, Jackson had her buried in the garden she loved. When he had the house remodeled in 1831, Jackson also had a Classicizing "temple & monument" constructed for Rachel&#39;s grave. Craftsmen completed the domed limestone tomb with a copper roof in 1832.</p><br>
<p>Behind the mansion, the property includes a smokehouse that dates to the early 19th century. The large brick smokehouse at the rear of the kitchen was built in 1831 and cured 20,000 lb of pork per year. Nearby is a cabin known as Uncle Alfreds Cabin. Alfred Jackson was born enslaved to Andrew Jackson at the Hermitage around 1812 and worked there in various positions. After the Civil War, he stayed as a tenant farmer and later worked as caretaker and guide following the purchase of the estate in 1889 by the Ladies Hermitage Association. Jackson died in 1901 and was buried near the tomb of the President and Mrs. Jackson.</p><br>
<p>Two other cabins were built from materials of the First Hermitage. After Jackson built the main house, the two-story log structure he had lived in for 15 years was disassembled, and the materials were used to build two one-story buildings used as workers&#39; quarters.</p><br>
<p>From 1988 to 2005, teams conducted extensive archaeological investigations at the site. Their work revealed the location of an ice house behind the smokehouse and hundreds of thousands of artifacts. A brick triplex of cabins that was likely used by workers and artisans was discovered near the mansion yard. Archaeologists have identified 13 dwellings used by workers. Remains of three foundation pits suggest there were at least two log houses and four brick duplexes. The cotton gin and cotton press (used for baling) were located in one of the cotton fields just beyond the First Hermitage.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site that Jackson named Hermitage was located 2 mi from the Cumberland and Stones Rivers after Native Americans had been pushed out of the region. The land was originally settled in 1780 by Robert Hays, who was the grand uncle of Texas Ranger John Coffee Hays and Confederate General Harry Thompson Hays. Hays sold the 420 acre farm to Jackson in 1804.</p><br>
<h3>Cotton plantation</h3><br>
<p>Jackson and his wife moved into the existing two-story log blockhouse, built to resist Indian attacks. A lean-to was added on the back of the cabin and to the rear, a group of log outbuildings were erected, including slave cabins, store rooms, and a smokehouse. This complex is known historically as the First Hermitage. Jackson started operations on his cotton farm with nine African slaves, but he continued to buy more laborers and owned 44 slaves by 1820. This scale of operation ranked him as a major planter and slaveholder in middle Tennessee, where most farmers owned zero or fewer than 10 slaves and 20 slaves marked a major planter. Some slave cabins for domestic servants and artisans were located near the main house. The majority, occupied by laborers, were located closer to the fields in an area known as the Field Quarter.</p><br>
<p>In 1818–1819, prior to his appointment as provisional Governor of the Florida Territory, Jackson built a brick house to replace the log structure he had lived in after purchasing the land. He also added six brick structures, containing a total of 13 20 by dwelling units for enslaved workers. These included a three-unit building known as the Triplex, built behind the mansion. A two-unit duplex known as the South Cabin was built at the First Hermitage. Four brick duplexes were built at the Field Quarter and were known as Cabins 1, 2, 3, and 4. At least one Field Cabin was still standing as late as the 1920s.</p><br>
<p>Elected President in 1828, Jackson enlarged the Hermitage during his first term. After an 1834 fire destroyed much of the interior of the house, he rebuilt and refurnished it. At the end of his second term in 1837, Jackson retired to the Hermitage, where he died in 1845. Andrew Jackson was buried in the garden next to his wife.</p><br>
<p>Throughout his life, Jackson expanded the site to an operation of 1,000 acre, with 200 acre used for cotton, the commodity crop, and the remainder for food production and breeding and training racehorses. By 1840, more than 100 enslaved men, women, and children lived on the estate. At the peak of operations, Jackson held 161 slaves in total: 110 at the Hermitage and 51 at Halcyon plantation in Coahoma County, Mississippi.</p><br>
<p>Jacksons adopted son, Andrew Jackson, Jr., inherited the estate, and Jacksons will also gave his son all slaves, except two boys (given to his grandchildren) and four women (given to Andrew Jr.&#39;s wife, Sarah). Due to debt and bad investments, Jackson Jr. began selling off portions of the estate. In 1856, he sold the remaining 500 acre, the mansion, and the outbuildings to the State of Tennessee, with a provision that the Jackson family could remain in residence as caretakers of the estate. The state intended to turn over the property to the federal government for use as a southern branch of the United States Military Academy, but the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 disrupted this plan.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War and afterwards</h3><br>
<p>On May 5, 1863, units of the Union Army from Indiana approached the Hermitage. Pvt. Joseph C. Taylor wrote an account in his diary:</p><br>
<h3>Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Hermitage escaped disaster during the 1998 Nashville tornado outbreak. An F-3 tornado crossed the property at about 4 p.m. on April 16, 1998, missing the house and grave site but toppling 1,000 trees on the estate, many that were reportedly planted by Jackson himself nearly 200 years earlier. The trees once hid the house from passers-by on USA Route 70, but their loss left the mansion in plain sight.</p><br>
<p>Using wood from the fallen trees, Gibson Guitar Corporation produced 200 limited-edition "Old Hickory" guitars. The first guitar produced was presented to the Smithsonian, although, it was not on display.</p><br>
<p>The mansion is the most accurately preserved early presidential home in the country. Each year, the home receives more than a quarter million visitors, making it the fourth-most-visited presidential residence in the country (after the White House, Mount Vernon, and Monticello). The property was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<p>Based on archaeological excavations and other research, the Hermitage mounted an exhibition on slave life at the plantation in 2005. It is installed in the Visitor Center and provides much more focus on the lives of enslaved African American families at the plantation, ranging from the domestic staff to field laborers.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate Soldiers Home Cemetery</h3><br>
<p>Part of the Hermitage estate that passed in to public hands became the site of the state-funded Confederate Soldiers Home, a residential facility that housed poor and disabled Confederate veterans beginning in 1892. More than 480 veterans who died there were buried in an onsite cemetery, each marked with a white, military-style gravestone and arrayed in circles around a monumental stone.</p><br>
<h3>Enslaved Memorial</h3><br>
<p>In 2006, the remains of 61 enslaved people who had been the legal property of Rachel Jackson&#39;s nephews were discovered near the Hermitage. Their burials were unmarked, but they were arranged in family groups and were estimated to range in age from 1 to 45. The Ladies Hermitage Association took charge of their burials in a new common grave on the Hermitage site. Atop their reburial, a memorial was built in 2009 in remembrance of the enslaved people of the area. The site design, "Our Peace: Follow the Drinking Gourd—A Monument to the Enslaved," proposed by Aaron Lee Benson, includes an unmarked stone wall over the burial site and seven trees arranged in the shape of the Little Dipper. Both the constellation and "follow the drinking gourd" refer to the practice of navigating by the North Star to escape from slavery.</p><br>
<p>Im 2024, a burial ground with 28 slave graves was discovered.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>The city in Davidson County where the Hermitage is located is known as Hermitage, Tennessee. A hotel named the Hermitage Hotel, located in downtown Nashville, opened in 1910 and is still operating. Many celebrities and USA presidents have spent time there.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Hermitage is prominently featured in one of the opening scenes of F. Scott Fitzgerald&#39;s unfinished novel, The Last Tycoon (1941), when the narrator, Celia, visits it with two other characters.</p><br>
<p>The Hermitage was one of the filming locations and settings for the 1955 Disney film Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier.</p><br>
<p>Sather Gate is a prominent landmark separating Sproul Plaza from the bridge over Strawberry Creek, leading to the center of the University of California, Berkeley campus. The gate was donated by Jane K. Sather, a benefactor of the university, in memory of her late husband Peder Sather, a trustee of the College of California, which later became the University of California. It is California Historical Landmark No. 946 and No. 82004649 in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Designed by John Galen Howard and built by Giovanni "John" Meneghetti in the Classical Revival Beaux-Arts style, Sather Gate was completed in 1910. Atop the gate are eight panels of bas-relief figures: four nude men representing the disciplines of law, letters, medicine, and mining, and four nude women representing the disciplines of agriculture, architecture, art, and electricity. They were sculpted by Professor Earl Cummings. From 1910 to 1977, the panels were removed due to differences with Jane Sather. By 1979 they were all reinstalled.</p><br>
<p>Originally, the gate served as the formal southern entrance to the university campus. The university later expanded further south of Strawberry Creek, and the gate is now well separated from Berkeley&#39;s city streets by Sproul Plaza.</p><br>
<p>Between October 2008 and April 2009, Sather Gate underwent restoration that focused on its bronze and steel metal work, which had deteriorated over time. It remained open to pedestrian and vehicular traffic during the period of restoration. Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., coordinated the restoration, which received a 2010 Design Award from the California Preservation Foundation.</p><br>
<h3>Free Speech Movement</h3><br>
<p>Sather Gate is part of the historic Sproul Plaza, a major center for student activity and the scene of many protests during the Free Speech Movement. The gate is a notable subject of one of the most recognizable and iconic photographs of the Movement, a fall 1964 shot of students walking through it, carrying the Free Speech banner.</p><br>
<p>Brook Farm, also called the Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education or the Brook Farm Association for Industry and Education, was a utopian experiment in communal living in the United States in the 1840s. It was founded by former Unitarian minister George Ripley and his wife Sophia Ripley at the Ellis Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts , in 1841 and was inspired in part by the ideals of transcendentalism, a religious and cultural philosophy based in New England. Founded as a joint stock company, it promised its participants a portion of the farm&#39;s profits in exchange for an equal share of the work. Brook Farmers believed that by sharing the workload, they would have ample time for leisure and intellectual pursuits.</p><br>
<p>Life on Brook Farm was based on balancing labor and leisure while working together for the communitys benefit. Each member could choose whatever work they found most appealing and all were paid equally, including women. Revenue came from farming and from selling handmade products like clothing, as well as fees paid by the farms many visitors. The main source of income was the school, which was overseen by Mrs. Ripley. A preschool, primary school, and a college preparatory school attracted children internationally and each child was charged for his or her education. Adult education was also offered.</p><br>
<p>The community was never financially stable and had difficulty profiting from its agricultural pursuits. By 1844, the Brook Farmers adopted a societal model based on the socialist concepts of Charles Fourier and began publishing The Harbinger as an unofficial journal promoting Fourierism. Following his vision, the community began building an ambitious structure called the Phalanstery. When the uninsured building burned down, the community was financially devastated and never recovered. It was fully closed by 1847. Despite the communes failure, many Brook Farmers looked back on their experience favorably. The communes critics included Charles Lane, founder of another utopian community, Fruitlands. Nathaniel Hawthorne was a founding member of Brook Farm, though not a strong adherent of the community&#39;s ideals. He later fictionalized his experience in his novel The Blithedale Romance (1852).</p><br>
<p>After Brook Farm closed, the property was operated for most of the next 130 years by a Lutheran organization, first as an orphanage, and then a treatment center and school. Fire destroyed the Transcendentalists buildings over the years. In 1988, the State of Massachusetts acquired 148 acre of the farm, which is now operated by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation as a historic site. Brook Farm was one of Massachusettss first sites to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places and be designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1977, the Boston Landmarks Commission designated Brook Farm a Boston Landmark, the city&#39;s highest recognition for historic sites.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Planning and background</h3><br>
<p>In October 1840, George Ripley announced to the Transcendental Club that he was planning to form a Utopian community. Brook Farm, as it would be called, was based on the ideals of Transcendentalism; its founders believed that by pooling labor they could sustain the community and still have time for literary and scientific pursuits. At Brook Farm, as in other communities, physical labor was perceived as a condition of mental well-being and health. Brook Farm was one of at least 80 communal experiments active in the United States in the 1840s, though it was the first to be secular. Ripley believed his experiment would be a model for the rest of society. He predicted: "If wisely executed, it will be a light over this country and this age. If not the sunrise, it will be the morning star." As more interested people began to take part in planning, Ripley relocated meetings from his home to the West Street bookshop operated by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody.</p><br>
<h3>Beginnings</h3><br>
<p>Ripley and his wife Sophia formed a joint stock company in 1841 along with 10 other investors. He sold shares of the company for $500 with a promise of 5% of the profits to each investor. They began raising money, including holding a meeting at Peabodys bookshop to raise $10,000 for the farms purchase. The site was eventually purchased on October 11, 1841, for $10,500, though participants began moving in as early as April. The 170 acre farm about eight miles (13 km) from Boston was described in a pamphlet as a "place of great natural beauty, combining a convenient nearness to the city with a degree of retirement and freedom from unfavorable influences unusual even in the country". The purchase also covered a neighboring Keith farm, about 22 acre, "consisting altogether of a farm with dwelling house, barn, and outbuildings thereon situated".</p><br>
<p>The first major public notice of the community was published in August 1841. "The Community at West Roxbury, Mass." was likely written by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. Though they began with 10 investors, eventually 32 people became Brook Farmers. Ripley received many applications to join the community, especially from people who had little money or were in poor health, but full-fledged membership was granted only to those who could afford a $500 share of the joint stock company.</p><br>
<p>One of Brook Farms founders was author Nathaniel Hawthorne. Hawthorne did not particularly agree with the experiments ideals, hoping only that it would help him raise enough money to begin his life with his wife-to-be, Sophia Peabody. He wrote of his displeasure with the community: "even my Custom House experience was not such a thraldom and weariness; my mind and heart were freer...Thank God, my soul is not utterly buried under a dung-heap."</p><br>
<h3>Fourier inspiration</h3><br>
<p>In the late 1830s, Ripley became increasingly engaged in "Associationism", an early socialist movement based on the work of Charles Fourier. Horace Greeley, a New York newspaper editor, and others began to pressure Brook Farm to follow more closely the pattern of Fourier at a time when the community was struggling to be self-sufficient. Albert Brisbane, whose book The Social Destiny of Man (1840) had inspired Ripley, paid Greeley $500 for permission to publish a front-page column in the New York Tribune that ran in several parts from March 1842 to September 1843. Brisbane argued in the series, titled "Association: or, Principles of a True Organization of Society", that Fouriers theories could be applied in the United States. He published similar articles in 1842 in The Dial, the journal of the Transcendentalists. Fouriers societal vision included elaborate plans for specific structures and highly organized roles for its members. He called his system for an ideal community a "Phalanx".</p><br>
<p>To meet this vision, now under the name "Brook Farm Association for Industry and Education", Brook Farmers committed themselves to constructing an ambitious communal building known as the Phalanstery. Construction began in the summer of 1844. The structure would accommodate 14 families and single people as well. It was planned to be 175 ft by 40 ft and include, as Ripley wrote, "a large and commodious kitchen, a dining-hall capable of seating from three to four hundred persons, two public saloons, and a spacious hall or lecture room".</p><br>
<p>Ripley and two associates created a new constitution for Brook Farm in 1844, beginning the experiments attempts to follow Fouriers Phalanx system. Many Brook Farmers supported the transition; at a dinner in honor of Fouriers birthday, one member of the group proposed a toast to "Fourier, the second coming of Christ". Others did not share that enthusiasm, and some left the commune. Both supporters and detractors called the early part of Brook Farms history the "Transcendental days". Ripley himself became a celebrity proponent of Fourierism and organized conventions throughout New England to discuss the community.</p><br>
<p>In the last few months of 1844, Brook Farmers were offered the chance to take over two Associationism-inspired publications, Brisbanes The Phalanx and John Allens The Social Reformer. Four printers were part of Brook Farm at the time and members of the community believed it would elevate their status as leaders of the movement, as well as provide additional income. Ultimately, the Brook Farmers published a new journal combining the two, The Harbinger. The journal&#39;s first issue was published on June 14, 1845, and it was continuously printed, originally weekly, until October 1847, when it relocated to New York City, still under the oversight of Ripley and fellow Brook Farmer Charles Anderson Dana. Naming the publication turned out to be a difficult task. Parke Godwin offered advice when it was suggested to keep the name The Phalanx:</p><br>
<h3>Decline and dissolution</h3><br>
<p>Brook Farm began to decline rapidly after its restructuring. In October 1844, Orestes Brownson visited the site and sensed that "the atmosphere of the place is horrible". To save money, "retrenchments", or sacrifices, were called for, particularly at the dinner table. Meat, coffee, tea, and butter were no longer offered, though it was agreed that a separate table with meat be allowed in December 1844. Many Brook Farmers applied for exceptions to these rules and soon it was agreed that "members of the Association who sit at the meat table shall be charged extra for their board". Life on Brook Farm was further worsened by an outbreak of smallpox in November 1845; though no one died, 26 Brook Farmers were infected.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the Phalanstery progressed well The fire was likely caused by a defective chimney. One participant noted, "Ere long the flames were chasing one another in a mad riot over the structure; running across long corridors and up and down the supporting columns of wood, until the huge edifice was a mass of firework". The financial blow from the loss of the uninsured building was $7,000 and it marked the beginning of the end of Brook Farm.</p><br>
<p>Ripley, who had begun the experiment, made an unofficial break with Brook Farm in May 1846. Many others began to leave as well, though the farms dissolution was slow. As one Brook Farmer said, the communitys slow decline was like apple petals drifting slowly to the ground, making it seem "dreamy and unreal". By the end, Brook Farm had a total debt of $17,445. Ripley told a friend, "I can now understand how a man would feel if he could attend his own funeral". He took a job with the New York Tribune and it took him 13 years to repay Brook Farm&#39;s debt, which he did in 1862.</p><br>
<h2>After Brook Farm</h2><br>
<p>A man named John Plummer purchased the land that was Brook Farm in 1849 before selling it six years later to James Freeman Clarke, who intended to establish another community there. Instead, Clarke offered it to President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War and the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry Regiment used it for training as Camp Andrew.</p><br>
<p>Clarke sold the property in 1868 to two brothers, who used it as a summer boarding house. In 1870, Gottlieb F. Burckhardt purchased the property, after which he formed the Association of the Evangelical Lutheran Church for Works of Mercy to operate an orphanage in The Hive, as the propertys main house. The orphanage opened in 1872 and operated until 1943. In 1948 the Lutherans converted it into a treatment center and school, which closed in 1977. Parts of the farm were separated in 1873 for use as a cemetery, a use that continues today as a non-denominational cemetery known as the Gardens of Gethsemene (as part of St. Josephs Cemetery and the Baker Street Jewish Cemeteries). During the period of Lutheran ownership the only now extant building, a c. 1890 print shop, was built on the land; the buildings associated with the Transcendentalists, most recently the Margaret Fuller Cottage, had burned down by the 1980s.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, the Metropolitan District Commission (since merged with the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, or DCR) purchased 148 acre of the original land. The farm was declared a USA National Historic Landmark in 1965, a Boston Landmark in 1977, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The DCR now operate the state-owned portion as a historic site; the West Roxbury Historical Society periodically offers tours.</p><br>
<h2>Landscape and facilities</h2><br>
<p>Brook Farm was named for the brook that ran near the roadside and eventually went to the Charles River. It was surrounded by low hills and its meadows and sunny slopes were diversified by orchard, quiet groves and denser pine woods. But the land turned out to be difficult to farm.</p><br>
<p>The land on the Keith lot that was purchased along with the Ellis farm included a functional farmhouse, which Brook Farmers called "The Hive". The Hive became the center for social activities and was where community members went for three meals a day. The Hives dining room held 50 people and its library was stocked with Ripleys personal book collection, which was made available to all members.</p><br>
<p>As the community grew, it became necessary to add more buildings for lodgings and various activities. The first building constructed was "The Nest", where school lessons took place and where guests of the farm would stay. Mr. and Mrs. Ripley&#39;s house, later called the Eyrie, was built during the second year. The next building to be built was the Margaret Fuller Cottage; though named after Fuller, she never spent a night there. A Brook Farm participant named Ichabod Morton built the Pilgrim House, named in honor of his home town of Plymouth, Massachusetts. The -story building was the third structure built that year, at a cost of nearly $5,000. Morton stayed there only two weeks before moving out, after which the building was used for general lodging and also held laundry facilities. The many constructions, including greenhouses and small craft shops, quickly reduced the treasury.</p><br>
<h2>Community life</h2><br>
<h3>Work and finances</h3><br>
<p>Participants at Brook Farm were also shareholders and were promised 5% of the annual profits or free tuition for one student. In exchange for 300 days of work per year, they were granted free room and board. Members performed whatever work most appealed to them and all, including women, were paid equal wages. The philosophy of labor, according to Ripley, was "to insure a more natural union between intellectual and manual labor than now exists; to combine the thinker and the worker, as far as possible, in the same individual."</p><br>
<p>The organization of work in Brook Farm changed over time because of both financial troubles and changes in ideology. Members of Brook Farm initially participated in an "attractive industry" system where each could pick his or her work assignments based on their preferences. This method had no specific authority to ensure that essential tasks were done. After initial leniency, some sensed that not all members were doing their fair share of the labor, so in 1841 the community adopted standards for work: ten hours of work were required per day during the summer and eight hours during winter. Each group had a chief who kept a record of the work done. While this system created a new work hierarchy, the members still had the flexibility to move between groups easily. These new measures caused Brook Farm to make a profit in 1844, a feat it had not accomplished in its first few years of existence.</p><br>
<p>Typical work duties at Brook Farm included chopping wood, bringing in firewood, milking cows, turning a grindstone, and other farming chores. There were some occasional conflicts between different workers, partly because those who were educators believed themselves more aristocratic; overall, however, as historian Charles Crowe wrote, "indeed all aspects of communal life operated with surprisingly little friction" in general.</p><br>
<p>People visited Brook Farm frequently, totaling an estimated 1,150 each year, and each was charged for their visit. Between November 1844 and October 1845, surviving records show that $425 was collected from visitor fees. The list of visitors included theologian Henry James, Sr., sculptor William Wetmore Story, artist John Sartain, and British social reformer Robert Owen.</p><br>
<p>Despite multiple sources of income, the community was in constant debt almost immediately after it began. The community, including Ripley, had difficulty with farming, in particular because of poor soil and not enough labor. The major crop was hay, which was sold at low-grade prices; vegetables, milk, and fruit were not produced in sufficient numbers to be profitable. The property was mortgaged four times between 1841 and 1845. Brook Farm got into the habit of spending money before it had been raised. One Brook Farmer wrote, "I think here lies the difficulty,—we have not had business men to conduct our affairs... those among us who have some business talents, see this error".</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>On September 29, 1841, the "Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education" was organized. The school was Brook Farm&#39;s most immediate (and at times only) source of income and attracted students from as far away as Cuba and the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>Within the school there was an infant school for children under six, a primary school for children under ten, and a preparatory school that prepared children for college in six years. The teachers included three graduates of Harvard Divinity School (George Ripley, George Partridge Bradford, and John Sullivan Dwight) and several women (Ripley&#39;s wife Sophia, his sister Marianne, and his cousin Hannah, Georgianna Bruce, and Abby Morton). Ripley was in charge of teaching English and was known to be relaxed in his class. Dana taught languages, speaking ten himself. Dwight taught music and Latin.</p><br>
<h3>Leisure</h3><br>
<p>The people of Brook Farm spent most of their time either studying or working the farm, but they always set aside time for play. In their free time, they enjoyed music, dancing, card games, drama, costume parties, sledding, and skating. Every week, the community would gather at The Hive for a dance by the young ladies of the community. They wore wreaths of wild daisies on their heads, and each week a special wreath, bought from a florist, was given to the best-dressed girl. At the end of every day, many performed a "symbol of Universal Unity", in which they stood in a circle and joined hands and vowed for "truth to the cause of God and Humanity".</p><br>
<p>Spirits remained high throughout the experiment, regardless of the communitys financial standing. a requirement to earn leisure time. Leisure time was important to Brook Farms philosophy. As Elizabeth Palmer Peabody wrote for The Dial in January 1842, "none will be engaged merely in bodily labor... This community aims to be rich, not in the metallic representative of wealth, but in... leisure to live in all the faculties of the soul".</p><br>
<h3>Role of women</h3><br>
<p>At Brook Farm, women could go beyond their typical sphere of tasks and their labor was highly valued. They did have tasks typical of other women at the time, such as simple food preparation, and shared housekeeping. But during harvest time, women were allowed to work in the fields and men even helped out with laundry during the cold weather. Because no single religion could impose its beliefs on the community, women were safe from the typical patriarchy associated with religion at the time. Because of the communitys focus on individual freedom, women were autonomous from their husbands and allowed to become stockholders. Women also played an important role in providing sources of income. Many devoted time to making, in Brook Farmer Marianne Dwights words, "elegant and tasteful caps, capes, collars, undersleeves, etc., etc.," for sale at Boston shops. Others painted screens and lampshades for sale. Women were allowed to go to school and, because of the well-known education of women at Brook Farm, many female writers and performers visited. Sophia Ripley, who had written an outspoken feminist essay for The Dial on "Woman" before moving to Brook Farm, was very educated and taught history and foreign languages at the farm.</p><br>
<h2>Criticism</h2><br>
<p>Many people in the community wrote of how much they enjoyed their experience and the lighthearted atmosphere. One participant, John Codman, joined the community at age 27 in 1843. He wrote, "It was for the meanest a life above humdrum, and for the greatest something far, infinitely far beyond. They looked into the gates of life and saw beyond charming visions, and hopes springing up for all". But the community&#39;s idealism was sometimes not lived up to. Because the community was officially secular, a variety of religions were represented, though not always amicably. When Isaac Hecker and, later, Sophia Ripley converted to Catholicism, a Protestant Brook Farmer complained, "We are beginning to see wooden crosses around and pictures of saints... and I suspect that rosaries are rattling under aprons."</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Hawthorne, eventually elected treasurer of the community, did not enjoy his experience. Initially, he praised the work he was doing, boasting of "what a great, broad-shouldered, elephantine personage I shall become by and by!" Later, he wrote to his wife-to-be Sophia Peabody, "labor is the curse of the world, and nobody can meddle with it without becoming proportionately brutified". After dissociating with the community, Hawthorne demanded the return of his initial investment, though he never held any ill will toward Ripley, to whom he wrote he would "heartily rejoice at your success—of which I can see no reasonable doubt".</p><br>
<p>Many outside Brook Farm were critical of it, especially in the press. The New York Observer, for example, wrote, "The Associationists, under the pretense of a desire to promote order and morals, design to overthrow the marriage institution, and in the place of the divine law, to substitute the passions as the proper regulator of the intercourse of the sexes", concluding that they were "secretly and industriously aiming to destroy the foundation of society". Edgar Allan Poe expressed his opinions on the community in an article titled "Brook Farm" in the December 13, 1845, issue of the Broadway Journal. He wrote that he had "sincere respect" for the group and that its journal, The Harbinger, was "conducted by an assemblage of well-read persons who mean no harm—and who, perhaps, can do no less". Despite many critics, none suggested George Ripley be replaced as Brook Farm&#39;s leader.</p><br>
<p>Ralph Waldo Emerson never joined the Brook Farm community, despite several invitations. He wrote to Ripley on December 15, 1840, of his "conviction that the Community is not good for me". He also questioned the communitys idealism, particularly its optimism that all members would share responsibility and workload equally. As he wrote, "The country members naturally were surprised to observe that one man ploughed all day and one looked out of a window all day... and both received at night the same wages". Twenty years later, Emerson publicly denounced the experiment in his essay collection The Conduct of Life. Charles Lane, one of the founders of another community called Fruitlands, thought the Brook Farmers lifestyle did not sacrifice enough. He said they were "playing away their youth and day-time in a miserably joyous frivolous manner". Like other communities, Brook Farm was criticized for its potential to break up the nuclear family because of its focus on working as a larger community. After its conversion to Fourierism, the Transcendentalists showed less support for it. Henry David Thoreau questioned the community members idealism and wrote in his journal, "As for these communities, I think I had rather keep bachelors hall in hell than go to board in heaven". Even Sophia Ripley later questioned their original optimism, calling it "childish, empty, & sad".</p><br>
<h2>In fiction</h2><br>
<p>Though a founding member, Hawthorne was unhappy during his tenure as a Brook Farmer, partly because he was unable to write while living there. "I have no quiet at all", he complained, and his hands were covered "with a new crop of blisters—the effect of raking hay". He presented a fictionalized portrait of his experience in his 1852 novel The Blithedale Romance. He acknowledged the resemblance in his introduction, saying "in the Blithedale of this volume, many readers will probably suspect a faint and not very faithful shadowing of Brook Farm, in West Roxbury, which (now a little more than ten years ago) was occupied and cultivated by a company of socialists." The chapter called "The Masqueraders", for example, was based on a picnic held one September to celebrate the harvest season. George Ripley, who reviewed the book for the New York Tribune, said that former Brook Farmers would only notice the resemblance in the humorous parts of the story. Some have also seen a resemblance between Margaret Fuller and Hawthorne&#39;s fictional character Zenobia. In the novel, a visitor—a writer like Hawthorne—finds that hard farm labor is not conducive to intellectual creativity. In his introduction, Hawthorne insisted that, although his experience with Brook Farm undoubtedly influenced his concept of a utopian community, the characters in his novel did not represent any specific Brook Farmers.</p><br>
<p>Pioneer Square is a neighborhood in the southwest corner of Downtown Seattle, Washington, US. It was once the heart of the city: Seattle&#39;s founders settled there in 1852, following a brief six-month settlement at Alki Point on the far side of Elliott Bay. The early structures in the neighborhood were mostly wooden, and nearly all burned in the Great Seattle Fire of 1889. By the end of 1890, dozens of brick and stone buildings had been erected in their stead; to this day, the architectural character of the neighborhood derives from these late 19th century buildings, mostly examples of Richardsonian Romanesque.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood takes its name from a small triangular plaza near the corner of First Avenue and Yesler Way, originally known as Pioneer Place. The Pioneer Square–Skid Road Historic District, a historic district including that plaza and several surrounding blocks, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Like virtually all Seattle neighborhoods, the Pioneer Square neighborhood lacks definitive borders. It is bounded roughly by Alaskan Way S. on the west, beyond which are the docks of Elliott Bay; by S. King Street on the south, beyond which is SoDo; by 5th Avenue S. on the east, beyond which is the International District; and it extends between one and two blocks north of Yesler Way, beyond which is the rest of Downtown. Because Yesler Way marks the boundary between two different plats, the street grid north of Yesler does not line up with the neighborhood&#39;s other streets (nor with the compass), so the northern border of the district zigzags along numerous streets.</p><br>
<p>In some places, the Pioneer Square–Skid Road Historic District extends beyond these borders. It includes Union Station east of 4th Avenue S., and several city blocks south of S. King Street.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The settlement&#39;s importance was guaranteed in 1852, when Henry Yesler chose the site for his lumber mill, which was located on Elliott Bay at the foot of what is now Yesler Way, right on the border between the land claimed (and soon thereafter platted) by David Swinson "Doc" Maynard (to the south) and that platted by Arthur Denny and Carson Boren.</p><br>
<p>Much of the neighborhood is on landfill: in pioneer times, the area roughly between First and Second Avenue, bounded on the south by Jackson Street, and extending north almost to Yesler Way (about two-and-a-half city blocks) was a low-lying offshore island. The mainland shore roughly followed what is now Yesler Way to about Fourth Avenue, then ran southeast, at an angle of about 45 degrees to the current shoreline. Slightly inland were steep bluffs, which were largely smoothed away by regrading in the late 19th and early 20th century.</p><br>
<h3>"Below the Line"</h3><br>
<p>Yesler Way, originally Mill Street, is the main east–west street through the Pioneer Square neighborhood. Immediately south of the square itself, it was the dividing line between Maynards original claim (to the south) and Borens (to the north). It became Deadline, the northern border of the Great Restricted District, Maynardtown, Down on the Sawdust, the Lava Beds, the Tenderloin, White Chapel, or Wappyville,), where low entertainment and vice were long tolerated. One of the earliest names, and one that stuck well into second half of the 20th century, was "Skid Row".</p><br>
<p>Henry Broderick, approaching his 80th birthday in 1959, wrote of the neighborhood south of Yesler, "erhaps never in all history, certainly not in America, has there ever existed such a massive collection of the demimonde grouped in a restricted area." There were "parlor houses" with marquees, celebrity madames—among them Lou Graham, Lila Young, and Raw McRoberts—and piano "professors". Scrupulous in their dealings, the parlor houses were completely tolerated by the city at the time, but there were also the far more controversial "crib houses" such as the Midway, the Paris and Dreamland near the corner of Sixth Avenue South and King Street. Each had a hundred or more cubicles—"cribs"—and they were not known for any particular honesty in their dealings. The city health department conducted inspections and attempted to keep venereal disease under control, but the state of medicine at the time was not such as to give them any great chance of success. Besides the brothels there were "an ungodly mixture of dives, dumps... pawnshops, hash houses, dope parlors and... the et cetera that kept the police guessing." Box houses prospered, part theater, part bar, part brothel, as did all sorts of gambling. Police only dared enter the neighborhood in teams. Perhaps the only safe haven in the neighborhood was the saloon "Our House", which rented out safe deposit boxes.</p><br>
<p>In 1870, Father Francis Xavier Prefontaine founded Seattles first Catholic Church, the Church of Our Lady of Good Help in the heart of this district, at Third Avenue South and Washington Street. Two decades later, Lou Graham opened the citys most famous parlor house diagonally across the street. Father Prefontaine is commemorated by a street in the neighborhood, Prefontaine Place.</p><br>
<h3>Late 19th century</h3><br>
<p>By the end of 1889, Seattle had become the largest city in Washington with 40,000 residents. That same year, the Great Seattle Fire resulted in the complete destruction of Pioneer Square. However, the economy was strong at the time, so Pioneer Square was quickly rebuilt. Many of the new buildings show the influence of the Romanesque Revival architectural mode, although influence of earlier Victorian modes is also widespread. Because of drainage problems new development was built at a higher level literally burying the remains of old Pioneer Square. Anticipating the planned regrade, many buildings were built with two entrances, one at the old, low level, and another higher up. Visitors can take the Seattle Underground Tour to see what remains of the old storefronts.</p><br>
<p>Just before the fire, cable car service was instituted from Pioneer Square along Yesler Way to Lake Washington and the Leschi neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>In 1891, German-born Frederick Trump, President Donald Trump&#39;s grandfather, owned the Dairy Restaurant on Washington Street.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>During the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897 and 1898, Seattle was a center for travel to Alaska. Thousands of so-called "stampeders" passed through Seattle making the city&#39;s merchants prosperous.</p><br>
<p>In 1899, a group of businessmen stole a Tlingit totem pole and placed it in Pioneer Place Park. When an arsonist destroyed the pole in 1938, the city sent the pieces back to the Tlingit tribe who carved a new one and gave it to Seattle (after finally getting paid for the one that was originally stolen).</p><br>
<p>In addition to the totem pole, a wrought-iron Victorian pergola designed by Julian F. Everett (Pioneer Square pergola), originally known as a comfort station and highly touted in tourism marketing, and a bust of Chief Seattle were added to the park in 1909.</p><br>
<p>1914 saw the completion of the Smith Tower, which at the time was the tallest building west of the Mississippi River. However, by that time, the heart of Downtown Seattle had moved north. The building of Second Avenue Extension in 1928-29 reconfigured the eastern portion of the neighborhood, by extending a piece of the north-of-Yesler street grid south past Yesler and "slicing into buildings in its path". The cable car line serving the area was shut down on August 10, 1940.</p><br>
<h4>1960s</h4><br>
<p>In the 1960s, Pioneer Square became a target of urban renewal. One proposal was to replace the buildings with parking garages to serve Downtown Seattle. In 1962, the historic Seattle Hotel was replaced with one such parking garage, commonly referred to as the "Sinking Ship" garage because of its appearance when viewed from 1st and Yesler; it stands to this day. Another proposal was to build a ring road which would have required destroying many of Pioneer Squares buildings. Many buildings were saved by the "benign neglect" of landowner Sam Israel. Although he rarely sold any of his buildings, he sold the Union Trust Building to architect Ralph Anderson, whose rehabilitation of that building set the pattern for the neighborhoods rehabilitation. In 1970, preservationists such as Bill Speidel, Victor Steinbrueck, and others succeeded in listing the neighborhood as historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Later that year, Pioneer Square became a city preservation district.</p><br>
<h4>1980s</h4><br>
<p>Streetcar service returned to Pioneer Square on May 29, 1982, with the opening of the Waterfront Streetcar. The streetcar discontinued service on November 19, 2005, since its carbarn was razed to make room for the Olympic Sculpture Park.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>In the 21st century, Pioneer Square is home to art galleries, internet companies, cafés, sports bars, nightclubs, bookstores, and a unit of the Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park, the other unit of which is located in Skagway, Alaska.</p><br>
<h2>Public art</h2><br>
<h3>Forest For The Trees</h3><br>
<p>This public art initiative developed by ARTXIV in collaboration with the nonprofit Forest for the Trees, aimed at transforming Seattles historic Pioneer Square into a year-round open-air gallery. The project features framed artworks displayed on building facades and in alleyways, blending contemporary art with the districts architectural heritage. The initiative supports artists through a commission-based model, with proceeds from artwork sales reinvested to sustain future installations. By integrating art into the urban environment, the project enhances community engagement and expands public access to creative expression.</p><br>
<h3>Fallen Firefighters Memorial</h3><br>
<p>Each spring since 1989, on the weekend nearest June 6, the city has celebrated the Pioneer Square Fire Festival with a parade and display of antique and modern fire apparatus, demonstrations of fire fighter skills, food and craft booths, and a party. On June 6, 1998, the anniversary of the 1889 fire, fell on a Saturday. This year the Festival took on additional meaning when the Fallen Fire Fighter Memorial was dedicated. Thanks to the work of Battalion Chief Wes Goss and his Memorial Committee the bronze sculpture was now in place. On a granite block is inscribed the name of each Seattle fire fighter who died in the line of duty.</p><br>
<p>Seattle - F. X. McRory Building 03.jpgManufacturers Building now home to F. X. McRory</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Pioneer Square Park from Post Alley 01B.jpgThe heart of Pioneer Square</p><br>
<p>Totem Pole - Pioneer Square - 1907.jpgThe original Pioneer Square Totem Pole in 1907</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Pioneer Square totem pole 01.jpgPioneer Square Totem Pole, 2007</p><br>
<p>Pioneer Square Pergola 01.jpgThe reconstructed Pioneer Square pergola</p><br>
<p>Chin Gee Hee - Kon Yick Building 01.jpgThe Chin Gee Hee - Kon Yick Building, one of the last remnants of the historic Chinese presence in the neighborhood</p><br>
<p>Seattle - 700 First Avenue 01.jpgThe Scheuerman Block is an example of the Victorian interpretations of the Romanesque Revival frequently applied to buildings erected shortly after the Great Seattle Fire</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Merchants Cafe 01.jpgThe Merchants Café, Seattle&#39;s oldest restaurant</p><br>
<p>Seattle - 101 S Jackson St 01.jpgHeritage Building, a typical early 20th century commercial building</p><br>
<p>Pioneer Square Pergola detail 01.jpgCast iron pergola, detail</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Pioneer Building 01.jpgPioneer Building, detail</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Grand Central Hotel entrance detail 02.jpgStylized lion, entrance of Grand Central Hotel, Squire–Latimer Building</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Fisher Building 03A.jpgFisher Building, detail</p><br>
<p>Seattle - west on S Washington St at night 02.jpgLooking west toward Pioneer Square at night</p><br>
<p>Elliott Bay Books - author reading 01A.jpgAuthor reading at Elliott Bay Books</p><br>
<p>Seattle Occidental 2.jpgOccidental Mall on a "First Thursday": the evening when most Pioneer Square art galleries start their new shows</p><br>
<p>27 Oct 2007 Seattle Demo 53.jpgA political demonstration in Occidental Park</p><br>
<p>Seattle - King St. Station interior 11.jpgWaiting room, King Street Station</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Drexel Hotel Building.jpgThe upper portion of the Drexel Hotel Building is a wood-framed structure that predates the great fire, but it was re-clad with new materials after 1945</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Delmar Bldg - State Hotel sign 01.jpgThe State Hotel Building preserves a sign from the Skid Road era</p><br>
<p>Seattle - Barneys Loans sign 01.jpgBarneys Loans continues as a pawn shop as of 2008</p><br>
<p>SeattleOccidentalParkNight.JPGOccidental Mall at night in February 2011</p><br>
<p>Excelsior V-Twins Seattle 1915.jpgMotorcyclists in 1915.</p><br>
<p>Artists at All City Coffee 25.jpgArtist gathering at All City Coffee, Pioneer Square in 2007</p><br>
<p>Mount Holly Cemetery is a historic cemetery located in the Quapaw Quarter area of downtown Little Rock in the USA state of Arkansas, and is the burial place for numerous Arkansans of note. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and has been nicknamed "The Westminster Abbey of Arkansas".</p><br>
<h2>Major events</h2><br>
<h3>"Tales of the Crypt"</h3><br>
<p>Every year in October several drama students from Parkview Arts and Science Magnet High School are each given a person buried in the cemetery to research. They then prepare short monologues or dialogues, complete with period costumes, to be performed in front of the researched person&#39;s grave. Audiences are led through the cemetery from grave to grave by guides with candles. The event is called "Tales of the Crypt". Although it takes place around the same time as the American holiday Halloween, the event is meant to be historic rather than spooky.</p><br>
<h3>2016 vandalism</h3><br>
<p>The cemetery experienced heavy vandalism in the overnight hours of April 20, 2016. Numerous headstones were toppled and smashed, including the well-known statues of a mourner next to statues of two little girls.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery is the burial place for ten former Arkansas governors, six United States senators, 14 Arkansas Supreme Court justices, 21 Little Rock mayors, numerous Arkansas literary figures, Confederate generals, and other worthies. There are also several slaves who are buried there, marked by modest gravestones.</p><br>
<p>Samuel Adams (1805–1850), Arkansas Governor</p><br>
<p>Dale Alford (1916–2000), USA Representative (1959–63) and ophthalmologist</p><br>
<p>Chester Ashley (1791–1848), US Senator</p><br>
<p>W. Jasper Blackburn (1820–1899), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Solon Borland (1811–1864), physician and US Senator</p><br>
<p>Elias Nelson Conway (1812–1892), Arkansas Governor</p><br>
<p>Jeff Davis (1862–1913), Arkansas Governor</p><br>
<p>David Owen Dodd (1846–1864), boy martyr of the Confederacy</p><br>
<p>James Philip Eagle (1837–1904), Arkansas Governor</p><br>
<p>James Fleming Fagan (1828–1893), Confederate Major General</p><br>
<p>Sandford C. Faulkner (1803–1874), the original Arkansas Traveller</p><br>
<p>John Gould Fletcher (1886–1950), Pulitzer Prize–winning poet, with his wife, noted children&#39;s book author Charlie May Simon (1897–1977)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Fletcher (1817–1880), acting governor of Arkansas (1862)</p><br>
<p>William Savin Fulton (1795–1844), USA senator from Arkansas (1836–1844)</p><br>
<p>Augustus Hill Garland (1876–1907), Arkansas Governor</p><br>
<p>John N. Heiskell (1872–1972), US Senator and editor of the Arkansas Gazette</p><br>
<p>Simon Pollard Hughes Jr. (1830–1906), Arkansas Governor</p><br>
<p>George Izard (1776–1828), governor of Arkansas Territory from 1825 to 1828</p><br>
<p>Robert Ward Johnson (1814–1879), C.S. senator from Arkansas (1862–1865)</p><br>
<p>George R. Mann (1856–1939), architect</p><br>
<p>William Read Miller (1823–1887) Arkansas Governor</p><br>
<p>Allison Nelson (1822–1862), politician and Confederate Brigadier General</p><br>
<p>Thomas Willoughby Newton (1804–1853) US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Quatie Brown Ross, wife of John Ross (Cherokee chief) (1791–1839), Cherokee figure</p><br>
<p>Albert Rust (1818–1870), US Congressman and Confederate Brigadier General (cenotaph)</p><br>
<p>Ambrose H. Sevier (1801–1848), USA senator from Arkansas (1836–1848)</p><br>
<p>Bernard Smith (1776–1835), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>David D. Terry (1881–1963), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Cephas Washburn (1793–1860), missionary</p><br>
<p>Edward Washburn (1831–1860), artist</p><br>
<p>Frank D. White (1933–2003), governor of Arkansas from 1981 to 1983</p><br>
<p>William W. Wilshire (1830–1888), USA representative from 1873 to 1877; chief justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court from 1868 to 1871</p><br>
<p>William E. Woodruff (1795–1885), founder of the Arkansas Gazette</p><br>
<p>Windsor Ruins are in Claiborne County, Mississippi, United States, about 10 mi southwest of Port Gibson near Alcorn State University. The ruins consist of 23 standing Corinthian columns of the largest antebellum Greek Revival mansion ever built in the state. The mansion stood from 1861 to 1890, when it was destroyed by fire. The 2.1 acres site with the columns was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 and was designated a Mississippi Landmark in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>Windsor mansion was located on a plantation that covered 2,600 acre. The mansion was constructed by enslaved African Americans between 1859 and 1861 for Smith Coffee Daniell II. He was born in Mississippi and had acquired great wealth by age 30 as a cotton planter. In 1849, Smith Daniell married his cousin Catherine Freeland (1830–1903). The couple had six children, with three surviving to adulthood.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Windsor mansion was built facing the Mississippi River, which formed the major transportation route. It was located about 4 mi east of the river. The architect David Shroder supervised a crew of skilled artisans—carpenters, plasterers, masons, and painters—from Mississippi, northeastern states, and Europe to do finishing work on the mansion.</p><br>
<p>The footprint for Windsor mansion was set by 29 columns which supported a projected roof line that protected 9 ft wide verandas on the second and third floors. The 29 columns were constructed of bricks that were covered with stucco. Each column was more than 3.5 ft in diameter at the base and stood 40 ft tall. The columns were constructed atop 10 ft tall, paneled brick plinths that were almost 5 ft square. Bricks were made in an onsite kiln. The fluted columns were crowned with ornate, iron Corinthian capitals. The columns were joined at the height of the third floor by ornamental iron balustrades.</p><br>
<p>Column capitals, balustrades, and four cast iron stairways were manufactured in St. Louis and shipped down the Mississippi River to the Port of Bruinsburg, about 2 mi west of Windsor mansion.</p><br>
<h3>Description</h3><br>
<p>Windsor mansion was constructed as a three-story block, consisting of a ground floor basement, with living quarters on the second and third floors. The main block was 64 ft on each side. A three-story ell projected from the east side of the main block. The ell measured 59 ft by 26.5 ft. Archeological examination suggests that outer walls were constructed of wood covered in stucco. When completed, the 17,000 ft2 mansion contained three hallways and 23 to 25 rooms, each with its own fireplace. A featured innovation for that time period was the inclusion of two interior bathrooms supplied with rainwater from a tank in the attic.</p><br>
<p>In 1861, cost of construction was about US$175,000 (equal to $ today).</p><br>
<p>The ground floor basement contained a school room, doctor&#39;s office, dairy, commissary, and storage rooms. The second floor had a hallway flanked by the master bedroom, a bathroom, two parlors, a study and a library. In the ell off the second floor was the dining room. Connected to the dining room by a dumbwaiter was the kitchen, located on the ground floor. The third floor contained an additional bath and eight more bedrooms. Eight chimneys extended from the slate-covered roof, and a domed cupola with glass walls was constructed above the attic, over the main block of the mansion.</p><br>
<p>On April 12, 1861, Smith Daniell died at age 34, just weeks after construction of the mansion was completed.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War era</h3><br>
<p>Once the American Civil War began in 1861, Confederate forces used the Windsor mansion cupola as an observation platform and signal station. In the spring of 1863, as part of his Vicksburg campaign, Union General Ulysses S. Grant and 17,000 Union troops landed at the port of Bruinsburg and took control of Windsor mansion. Following the Battle of Port Gibson, the mansion was used by Union troops as a hospital and as an observation station. The Daniell family was allowed to live on the third floor of the mansion during the Union occupation.</p><br>
<p>Windsor mansion survived the war and continued to be used by the Daniell family as a home and for social gatherings in the area. During Reconstruction, the family derived income by leasing part of their vast land holdings.</p><br>
<p>For more than 100 years, the outward appearance of Windsor mansion was a matter of conjecture. But in the early 1990s, an 1863 sketch of Windsor mansion was discovered in the papers of a former Union officer, Henry Otis Dwight, of the 20th Ohio Infantry. Historians believe that Henry Dwight made the sketch while his unit was encamped on the grounds of the mansion.</p><br>
<h3>Fire</h3><br>
<p>On February 17, 1890, a fire started on the third floor when a guest dropped ashes from a cigarette or cigar into construction debris left by carpenters who were making repairs. Windsor mansion was destroyed leaving only the columns, balustrades, cast iron stairways, and pieces of bone china.</p><br>
<h2>Historic site</h2><br>
<p>When Catherine Daniell died in 1903, her daughter, Priscilla Daniell, inherited the mansion property. Priscilla married Joseph Magruder, and the mansion site remained in the Magruder family until 1974, when they donated 2.1 acre, containing the mansion ruins, to the state of Mississippi. The historic site contains 23 standing columns and 5 partial columns; it is administered by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History.</p><br>
<p>Through the years, three of the cast iron stairways, that survived the 1890 fire, disappeared from the site. The fourth stairway was moved to Alcorn State University and serves as the entrance to Oakland Memorial Chapel.</p><br>
<p>North of Windsor Ruins is a cemetery where members of the Daniell and Freeland families have been buried since the early 19th century. The earliest grave is that of Frisby Freeland (1747 – 1819), an American Revolutionary War soldier.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Windsor&#39;s ruins have been shown in two motion pictures—Raintree County (1957) and Ghosts of Mississippi (1996).</p><br>
